Pub Date : 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108510
Jinxi Liang , Wanghua Sui , Ming Ye , Sara Kasmaeeyazdi , Francesco Tinti
Water-sand mixture inrush (WSMI) events pose severe threats to mining safety, infrastructure stability, and subsurface operations. This study first develops a pathway loss model to integrate frictional and expansion-induced hydraulic head losses, and then applies the Sobol-based global sensitivity analysis (GSA) to the model to evaluate WSMI risk for the following two scenarios: (1) direct pathway-induced WSMI (with short, gravity-driven pathways) and (2) indirect or combined pathway-induced WSMI (with long, complex, pressure-driven pathways). For the two scenarios, GSA identifies fluid velocity as the dominant parameter, with pathway expansion loss governing direct inrush and friction loss dominating indirect inrush. Hydraulic head loss is markedly higher in the indirect inrush scenario than in the direct inrush scenario. Accordingly, tailored mitigation strategies are developed. For the direct inrush scenario (simple pathways), the priority is to cut off the energy conversion chain; for indirect inrush scenario (complex pathways), the focus is on dissipating excess energy. These findings advance the mechanistic understanding of WSMI and offer scenario-specific guidance for hazard control.
{"title":"Water-sand mixture inrush in underground pathways: Risk factors and mitigation strategies","authors":"Jinxi Liang , Wanghua Sui , Ming Ye , Sara Kasmaeeyazdi , Francesco Tinti","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108510","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108510","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Water-sand mixture inrush (WSMI) events pose severe threats to mining safety, infrastructure stability, and subsurface operations. This study first develops a pathway loss model to integrate frictional and expansion-induced hydraulic head losses, and then applies the Sobol-based global sensitivity analysis (GSA) to the model to evaluate WSMI risk for the following two scenarios: (1) direct pathway-induced WSMI (with short, gravity-driven pathways) and (2) indirect or combined pathway-induced WSMI (with long, complex, pressure-driven pathways). For the two scenarios, GSA identifies fluid velocity as the dominant parameter, with pathway expansion loss governing direct inrush and friction loss dominating indirect inrush. Hydraulic head loss is markedly higher in the indirect inrush scenario than in the direct inrush scenario. Accordingly, tailored mitigation strategies are developed. For the direct inrush scenario (simple pathways), the priority is to cut off the energy conversion chain; for indirect inrush scenario (complex pathways), the focus is on dissipating excess energy. These findings advance the mechanistic understanding of WSMI and offer scenario-specific guidance for hazard control.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108510"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145753363","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108511
Chuanxiang Qu , Yutong Liu , Haowen Guo , Leilei Liu
Probabilistic stability analysis of unsaturated soil slope with spatial variability under rainfall infiltration is computationally intensive due to highly non-linear behaviour and numerous repeated computations. In the field, unsaturated soil typically experiences specific stress states, and these stress levels can influence soil water capacity, thereby affecting slope stability. However, such stress effects have rarely been considered in previous probabilistic analyses of unsaturated soil slope stability. The relative importance of stress effects and spatial variability on slope stability remains unclear. To tackle these issues, a convolutional neural network with Bayesian optimisation (CNNB) is proposed as a surrogate algorithm. A completely decomposed tuff (CDT) slope, which is commonly observed in Hong Kong, serves as an example. Stress effects are characterised by a stress-dependent water retention model that effectively captures the influence of stress on water capacity at any given stress level. The spatially varying soil hydraulic and mechanical parameters of the slope are simulated by multivariate cross-correlated random fields. It is found that the proposed CNNB considerably enhances computational efficiency by at least 7.7 times compared to the random finite element method combined with the random limit equilibrium method (RFEM-RLEM). Meanwhile, it maintains a reliable probability of failure (pf) assessment with a prediction error as low as 2.9 %. Ignoring stress effects underestimates pf of the slope by up to 90 % under rainfall in Hong Kong with a 100-year return period. Stress effects have a more significant influence than spatial variability when computing the factor of safety (FOS) of the slope. Utilising deterministic analysis without stress effects as a benchmark, the difference in FOS due to stress effects is about 3.5 times that of spatial variability. Additionally, without considering spatial variability can also lead to unsafe assessments, as evidenced by a mean FOS value of 1.04 corresponding to a 22.6 % pf, indicating a hazardous performance level.
{"title":"Probabilistic analysis of stress effects on an unsaturated soil slope stability using convolutional neural networks and Bayesian optimisation","authors":"Chuanxiang Qu , Yutong Liu , Haowen Guo , Leilei Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108511","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108511","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Probabilistic stability analysis of unsaturated soil slope with spatial variability under rainfall infiltration is computationally intensive due to highly non-linear behaviour and numerous repeated computations. In the field, unsaturated soil typically experiences specific stress states, and these stress levels can influence soil water capacity, thereby affecting slope stability. However, such stress effects have rarely been considered in previous probabilistic analyses of unsaturated soil slope stability. The relative importance of stress effects and spatial variability on slope stability remains unclear. To tackle these issues, a convolutional neural network with Bayesian optimisation (CNNB) is proposed as a surrogate algorithm. A completely decomposed tuff (CDT) slope, which is commonly observed in Hong Kong, serves as an example. Stress effects are characterised by a stress-dependent water retention model that effectively captures the influence of stress on water capacity at any given stress level. The spatially varying soil hydraulic and mechanical parameters of the slope are simulated by multivariate cross-correlated random fields. It is found that the proposed CNNB considerably enhances computational efficiency by at least 7.7 times compared to the random finite element method combined with the random limit equilibrium method (RFEM-RLEM). Meanwhile, it maintains a reliable probability of failure (<em>p</em><sub>f</sub>) assessment with a prediction error as low as 2.9 %. Ignoring stress effects underestimates <em>p</em><sub>f</sub> of the slope by up to 90 % under rainfall in Hong Kong with a 100-year return period. Stress effects have a more significant influence than spatial variability when computing the factor of safety (FOS) of the slope. Utilising deterministic analysis without stress effects as a benchmark, the difference in FOS due to stress effects is about 3.5 times that of spatial variability. Additionally, without considering spatial variability can also lead to unsafe assessments, as evidenced by a mean FOS value of 1.04 corresponding to a 22.6 % <em>p</em><sub>f</sub>, indicating a hazardous performance level.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108511"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145753480","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-12DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108508
Fanfan Yang , Renguang Zuo , Oliver P. Kreuzer
Data-driven deep learning approaches have exhibited promising performance in engineering geological mapping. However, existing methods face challenges in geological mapping based on multimodal data fusion due to their limited ability to exploit the complementary features among geoscience data. Moreover, the poor interpretability of deep learning methods limits their applicability for downstream engineering decision-making. To address these issues, this study designed a novel interpretable framework combining a contrastive multimodal graph attention network (CMGAT) with GNNExplainer (generating explanations for graph neural networks) for geological mapping. CMGAT was developed to extract discriminative features from multimodal graphs and align cross-modal representations via contrastive learning, while GNNExplainer was applied to quantify the influence of graph structure and geological features on the identification of geological units. The proposed CMGAT outperformed other unimodal models, achieving overall accuracies of 91 % and 82.9 % in lithological and fault mapping, respectively, in southwestern Fujian Province of China. Moreover, the GNNExplainer analysis identified key graph structure and geological indicators for geological unit delineation, strengthening the credibility of the predictive results. The framework can be further extended to diverse engineering geological mapping tasks.
{"title":"Interpretable regional-scale geological mapping using a contrastive graph attention network for multimodal data fusion and recognition of controlling factors","authors":"Fanfan Yang , Renguang Zuo , Oliver P. Kreuzer","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108508","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108508","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Data-driven deep learning approaches have exhibited promising performance in engineering geological mapping. However, existing methods face challenges in geological mapping based on multimodal data fusion due to their limited ability to exploit the complementary features among geoscience data. Moreover, the poor interpretability of deep learning methods limits their applicability for downstream engineering decision-making. To address these issues, this study designed a novel interpretable framework combining a contrastive multimodal graph attention network (CMGAT) with GNNExplainer (generating explanations for graph neural networks) for geological mapping. CMGAT was developed to extract discriminative features from multimodal graphs and align cross-modal representations via contrastive learning, while GNNExplainer was applied to quantify the influence of graph structure and geological features on the identification of geological units. The proposed CMGAT outperformed other unimodal models, achieving overall accuracies of 91 % and 82.9 % in lithological and fault mapping, respectively, in southwestern Fujian Province of China. Moreover, the GNNExplainer analysis identified key graph structure and geological indicators for geological unit delineation, strengthening the credibility of the predictive results. The framework can be further extended to diverse engineering geological mapping tasks.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108508"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731549","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-12DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108482
Philipp Frieß , Hervé Vicari , Brian McArdell , Amanda Åberg , Johan Gaume
When debris and mud flows pass through curved channels, centrifugal forces lead to a height difference – known as superelevation – between the inner and outer banks. Analytical models describe this phenomenon by relating the superelevation angle to flow speed. However, these models assume simplified flow dynamics, a linear flow free surface, and do not explicitly account for solid–fluid interactions, requiring an empirical correction factor. In this study, we perform fully depth-resolved SPH-DEM numerical experiments to investigate the influence of water content on superelevation in curved channels. DEM represents the coarse solid particles, while SPH models the fluid phase, including both fines and water. The model is first validated against laboratory-scale experiments of debris flow superelevation. A parametric study is then conducted by varying the water content in debris and mud flows. The results show that increased water content leads to higher flow velocity and thus greater superelevation. The transverse flow surface depends strongly on material composition: mud flows typically exhibit convex-downward profiles, whereas granular flows display concave-downward profiles. By balancing centrifugal forces with basal normal stresses, we establish a correlation between the empirical correction factor, water content, and flow-surface curvature. However, the numerical experiments also reveal significant spatial variability in the correction factor along the bend, indicating additional mechanisms – specifically, a run-up impact that promotes superelevation, and subsequent alternating transverse motions – that limit the applicability of this analytical approach. Finally, SPH-DEM simulations of a real debris flow event at Illgraben successfully reproduce the observed field data, demonstrating the ability of the model for large-scale applications.
{"title":"Two-phase SPH-DEM modeling of the superelevation phenomenon of debris and mud flows","authors":"Philipp Frieß , Hervé Vicari , Brian McArdell , Amanda Åberg , Johan Gaume","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108482","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108482","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>When debris and mud flows pass through curved channels, centrifugal forces lead to a height difference – known as superelevation – between the inner and outer banks. Analytical models describe this phenomenon by relating the superelevation angle to flow speed. However, these models assume simplified flow dynamics, a linear flow free surface, and do not explicitly account for solid–fluid interactions, requiring an empirical correction factor. In this study, we perform fully depth-resolved SPH-DEM numerical experiments to investigate the influence of water content on superelevation in curved channels. DEM represents the coarse solid particles, while SPH models the fluid phase, including both fines and water. The model is first validated against laboratory-scale experiments of debris flow superelevation. A parametric study is then conducted by varying the water content in debris and mud flows. The results show that increased water content leads to higher flow velocity and thus greater superelevation. The transverse flow surface depends strongly on material composition: mud flows typically exhibit convex-downward profiles, whereas granular flows display concave-downward profiles. By balancing centrifugal forces with basal normal stresses, we establish a correlation between the empirical correction factor, water content, and flow-surface curvature. However, the numerical experiments also reveal significant spatial variability in the correction factor along the bend, indicating additional mechanisms – specifically, a run-up impact that promotes superelevation, and subsequent alternating transverse motions – that limit the applicability of this analytical approach. Finally, SPH-DEM simulations of a real debris flow event at Illgraben successfully reproduce the observed field data, demonstrating the ability of the model for large-scale applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108482"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731842","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108504
Ming-Jen Lo , Tso-Ren Wu , Kenji Satake
On January 1, 2024, a powerful earthquake (M 7.6) struck the Noto Peninsula, Japan, triggering a tsunami in the Sea of Japan. In Toyama Bay, the tsunami arrived earlier than expected. This study investigates the 2024 Noto tsunami event by separately modeling three potential tsunami generation mechanisms: vertical displacement from fault motion, horizontal displacement, and submarine landslides. To enhance the accuracy of submarine landslide-induced tsunami modeling, a computational fluid dynamics model, SPLASH3D, is utilized to simulate the landslide dynamics and determine its duration. Subsequently, a temporally variable seabed motion is used as the initial condition for a tsunami simulation code, COMCOT, to generate a dynamic tsunami source. The simulation results indicate that the sliding process has a significant influence on the observed tsunami in Toyama Bay, producing waveforms that better match observations than those derived from the equivalent instantaneous initial free surface displacement method. The combined simulation of dynamic submarine landslides, vertical displacements from fault motion, and horizontal displacements of the Noto Peninsula closely matches the observed data, enabling a detailed analysis of each source's contribution to the anomalous tsunami. Simulation results indicate that the submarine landslide was responsible for the early arrival of the tsunami. The contributions of the vertical fault displacement and submarine landslide each account for approximately 45 % of the maximum wave height, elucidating the unexpectedly high tsunami wave height. Therefore, the risks posed by landslide-generated tsunamis constitute a critical issue that must be addressed in tsunami early warning and coastal engineering risk assessment.
{"title":"Contribution of time-evolving landslide sources to the anomalous tsunami observed in the 2024 Noto earthquake","authors":"Ming-Jen Lo , Tso-Ren Wu , Kenji Satake","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108504","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108504","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>On January 1, 2024, a powerful earthquake (M 7.6) struck the Noto Peninsula, Japan, triggering a tsunami in the Sea of Japan. In Toyama Bay, the tsunami arrived earlier than expected. This study investigates the 2024 Noto tsunami event by separately modeling three potential tsunami generation mechanisms: vertical displacement from fault motion, horizontal displacement, and submarine landslides. To enhance the accuracy of submarine landslide-induced tsunami modeling, a computational fluid dynamics model, SPLASH3D, is utilized to simulate the landslide dynamics and determine its duration. Subsequently, a temporally variable seabed motion is used as the initial condition for a tsunami simulation code, COMCOT, to generate a dynamic tsunami source. The simulation results indicate that the sliding process has a significant influence on the observed tsunami in Toyama Bay, producing waveforms that better match observations than those derived from the equivalent instantaneous initial free surface displacement method. The combined simulation of dynamic submarine landslides, vertical displacements from fault motion, and horizontal displacements of the Noto Peninsula closely matches the observed data, enabling a detailed analysis of each source's contribution to the anomalous tsunami. Simulation results indicate that the submarine landslide was responsible for the early arrival of the tsunami. The contributions of the vertical fault displacement and submarine landslide each account for approximately 45 % of the maximum wave height, elucidating the unexpectedly high tsunami wave height. Therefore, the risks posed by landslide-generated tsunamis constitute a critical issue that must be addressed in tsunami early warning and coastal engineering risk assessment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108504"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731845","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108506
Li Fei, Michel Jaboyedoff, Tiggi Choanji, Marc-Henri Derron
Over the past two decades, accelerated rock wall retreat has become a growing concern due to its link to global warming. While most research has focused on high-altitude cryosphere and deglacial regions, rock wall retreat in low-elevation areas remains understudied, despite posing higher risks to infrastructure and public safety. To address this gap, we investigated a molasse rock wall at La Cornalle located in the subalpine region (Vaud, Switzerland), composed of interbedded marl and sandstone layers. Using monthly Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), we established a detailed four-year rockfall inventory and examined it with meteorological factors, including precipitation (including the snow melting), air temperature, and evapotranspiration (ET), collected from two nearby weather stations. A total of 4051 rockfall events, with a cumulative volume of 285 m3, were recorded. The annual retreat rates for sandstones and marls were 35.6 mm/yr and 26.0 mm/yr, respectively, with newly exposed rock faces showing a higher retreat rate (43.8 mm/yr) for marls. Spatially, rockfalls were concentrated in steep, thinly bedded, and highly fractured zones, as well as around large sandstone overhangs. Temporally, rockfall frequency peaked during winter and wet spring-summer periods, with duration of rainfall emerging as the primary driver, as prolonged rain facilitates deep water infiltration and weakens the water-sensitive marl layers. Following an extreme heatwave in August 2022, a notable spike in small rockfall events was observed at the early autumn (from Mid-September to Mid-October), indicating that local climatic shifts, such as extreme heatwave (coupled drying and heating) followed by effective water input (wetting), can significantly destabilize rock walls. This study highlights the importance of understanding temporal variations in rockfall activity and rock wall retreat by incorporating geological and climatic factors to improve rockfall hazard assessments in low-elevation regions.
{"title":"Analysis of rockfall-induced retreat and influencing factors in a sandstone-marl interbedded rock wall in a low-elevation environment","authors":"Li Fei, Michel Jaboyedoff, Tiggi Choanji, Marc-Henri Derron","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108506","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108506","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Over the past two decades, accelerated rock wall retreat has become a growing concern due to its link to global warming. While most research has focused on high-altitude cryosphere and deglacial regions, rock wall retreat in low-elevation areas remains understudied, despite posing higher risks to infrastructure and public safety. To address this gap, we investigated a molasse rock wall at La Cornalle located in the subalpine region (Vaud, Switzerland), composed of interbedded marl and sandstone layers. Using monthly Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), we established a detailed four-year rockfall inventory and examined it with meteorological factors, including precipitation (including the snow melting), air temperature, and evapotranspiration (ET), collected from two nearby weather stations. A total of 4051 rockfall events, with a cumulative volume of 285 m<sup>3</sup>, were recorded. The annual retreat rates for sandstones and marls were 35.6 mm/yr and 26.0 mm/yr, respectively, with newly exposed rock faces showing a higher retreat rate (43.8 mm/yr) for marls. Spatially, rockfalls were concentrated in steep, thinly bedded, and highly fractured zones, as well as around large sandstone overhangs. Temporally, rockfall frequency peaked during winter and wet spring-summer periods, with duration of rainfall emerging as the primary driver, as prolonged rain facilitates deep water infiltration and weakens the water-sensitive marl layers. Following an extreme heatwave in August 2022, a notable spike in small rockfall events was observed at the early autumn (from Mid-September to Mid-October), indicating that local climatic shifts, such as extreme heatwave (coupled drying and heating) followed by effective water input (wetting), can significantly destabilize rock walls. This study highlights the importance of understanding temporal variations in rockfall activity and rock wall retreat by incorporating geological and climatic factors to improve rockfall hazard assessments in low-elevation regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108506"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732132","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108507
Pin-Qiang Mo , Yu-cheng Li , Guojun Cai , Qiuzhu Ma , Hai-Sui Yu
Land reclamation is widely adopted for the development of critical coastal infrastructure, yet long-term settlement remains a persistent and challenging geotechnical issue. This study systematically investigates the consolidation behavior of diatomaceous soil at Walvis Bay Harbor, Namibia, based on a combination of in-situ CPTu testing, pore pressure dissipation measurements, and laboratory experiments. By integrating cavity-expansion theory with Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation model, an inversion framework is developed to estimate the initial excess pore water pressure from current field observations. A Bayesian procedure is further applied to quantify the uncertainty of the inversion results, yielding a 90 % credible interval. The settlement evolution is preliminarily evaluated using the layer-summation method together with one-dimensional consolidation theory, and the approach is benchmarked against the Makassar Strait reclamation case. The results suggest that the unadjusted CASM parameters tend to produce lower estimates of the current excess pore water pressure in diatomaceous soil, while the predicted settlement curve generally falls below the measured values, though the observations remain within the broader prediction interval. Overall, the proposed inversion method offers a practical tool for evaluating consolidation behavior and long-term settlement in coastal reclamation projects.
土地复垦被广泛用于重要的沿海基础设施的发展，但长期解决仍然是一个持续和具有挑战性的岩土工程问题。本研究基于原位CPTu测试、孔压耗散测量和室内实验相结合的方法，系统地研究了纳米比亚Walvis Bay Harbor硅藻土的固结行为。将空腔膨胀理论与Terzaghi的一维固结模型相结合，建立了一个反演框架，利用现有的现场观测数据估计初始超孔隙水压力。贝叶斯过程进一步应用于量化反演结果的不确定性，得到90%的可信区间。以望加锡海峡填海工程为例，采用层合法结合一维固结理论对沉降演化进行了初步评价。结果表明，未经调整的CASM参数对硅藻土当前超孔隙水压力的估计值往往较低，而沉降曲线的预测值一般低于实测值，但观测值仍在较宽的预测区间内。总体而言，本文提出的反演方法为评估围垦工程的固结行为和长期沉降提供了实用的工具。
{"title":"Consolidation characteristics of diatomaceous soil in coastal reclamations revealed by CPTu tests","authors":"Pin-Qiang Mo , Yu-cheng Li , Guojun Cai , Qiuzhu Ma , Hai-Sui Yu","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108507","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108507","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Land reclamation is widely adopted for the development of critical coastal infrastructure, yet long-term settlement remains a persistent and challenging geotechnical issue. This study systematically investigates the consolidation behavior of diatomaceous soil at Walvis Bay Harbor, Namibia, based on a combination of in-situ CPTu testing, pore pressure dissipation measurements, and laboratory experiments. By integrating cavity-expansion theory with Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation model, an inversion framework is developed to estimate the initial excess pore water pressure from current field observations. A Bayesian procedure is further applied to quantify the uncertainty of the inversion results, yielding a 90 % credible interval. The settlement evolution is preliminarily evaluated using the layer-summation method together with one-dimensional consolidation theory, and the approach is benchmarked against the Makassar Strait reclamation case. The results suggest that the unadjusted CASM parameters tend to produce lower estimates of the current excess pore water pressure in diatomaceous soil, while the predicted settlement curve generally falls below the measured values, though the observations remain within the broader prediction interval. Overall, the proposed inversion method offers a practical tool for evaluating consolidation behavior and long-term settlement in coastal reclamation projects.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108507"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732133","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108505
Zhao-Qiang Zheng , Li Zhuo , Jian-Liang Pei , Ming-Li Xiao , Huai-Zhong Liu , Hong-Qiang Xie , Tao Luo
Creep of soft rock is influenced by many factors, among which the water content exhibits a significant influence on both deformation and strength properties of rock, thus making the prediction and control of the creep of water-bearing soft rock bodies difficult. Here, the creep characteristics of a water-bearing soft rock from a water diversion project was investigated through triaxial unloading creep tests. The results demonstrate that the increasing water content weakens rock strength, augments the creep deformation and promotes time-dependent volume dilation, whereas the confining pressure plays an inhibiting role in creep deformation. Notably, a transition from compressive to dilative steady volumetric creep rate was observed with the decreasing confining pressure, and the corresponding transition stress threshold was identified as the long-term strength of rock. Besides, a coupled damage law was observed from the test results. Building upon these findings, a nonlinear elasto-viscoplastic creep model (NWSC) integrating a time-dependent coupled water–stress damage function and a novel nonlinear viscoplastic model was proposed. Subsequently, this model was implemented in FLAC3D to estimate the long-term stability of the water diversion soft rock tunnel affected by potential water leakage. The research results provide critical insights into the long-term mechanical behaviors of water-bearing soft rock and an advanced theoretical tool to predict the time-dependent behaviors of geological bodies subjected to the weakening effect of underground water.
{"title":"Creep of water-bearing soft rock and its influence on long-term rock mass stability","authors":"Zhao-Qiang Zheng , Li Zhuo , Jian-Liang Pei , Ming-Li Xiao , Huai-Zhong Liu , Hong-Qiang Xie , Tao Luo","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108505","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108505","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Creep of soft rock is influenced by many factors, among which the water content exhibits a significant influence on both deformation and strength properties of rock, thus making the prediction and control of the creep of water-bearing soft rock bodies difficult. Here, the creep characteristics of a water-bearing soft rock from a water diversion project was investigated through triaxial unloading creep tests. The results demonstrate that the increasing water content weakens rock strength, augments the creep deformation and promotes time-dependent volume dilation, whereas the confining pressure plays an inhibiting role in creep deformation. Notably, a transition from compressive to dilative steady volumetric creep rate was observed with the decreasing confining pressure, and the corresponding transition stress threshold was identified as the long-term strength of rock. Besides, a coupled damage law was observed from the test results. Building upon these findings, a nonlinear elasto-viscoplastic creep model (NWSC) integrating a time-dependent coupled water–stress damage function and a novel nonlinear viscoplastic model was proposed. Subsequently, this model was implemented in FLAC3D to estimate the long-term stability of the water diversion soft rock tunnel affected by potential water leakage. The research results provide critical insights into the long-term mechanical behaviors of water-bearing soft rock and an advanced theoretical tool to predict the time-dependent behaviors of geological bodies subjected to the weakening effect of underground water.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108505"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731844","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-08DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108502
Lingxiao Wang , Lin Zhao , Shibo Liu , Huayun Zhou , Guojie Hu , Defu Zou , Erji Du , Guangyue Liu , Yao Xiao , Yueli Chen , Jianting Zhao , Wei Chen , Xueying Wang , Chong Wang
The warming and thawing of ice-rich permafrost present major challenges for the stability of linear infrastructure across cold regions. The Qinghai-Tibet Railway (QTR) and Highway (QTH), two critical transportation corridors on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, traverse extensive warm and ice-rich permafrost where maintaining long-term embankment stability has become a complex engineering challenge. A systematic evaluation of roadway stability and the effectiveness of engineered cooling measures is essential for ensuring safe operation and for guiding maintenance strategies. However, comprehensive route-scale assessments remain scarce due to the lack of suitable evaluation methods. In this study, we provide the first systematic assessment of the stability of ∼890 km of the QTR and QTH and the effectiveness of cooling engineering measures based on ground deformation through Sentinel-1 SBAS-InSAR monitoring. The performance of cooling measures is quantified by comparing deformation between road surface and adjacent natural terrain, and the dominant environmental and engineering controls on deformation variability are identified. Results reveal that geomorphological and ground thermal conditions strongly govern permafrost terrain deformation, with unstable segments concentrated where ground temperatures approach 0 °C, particularly across lacustrine plains and fluvial terraces. Overall, 92.8 % of the QTR and 86.7 % of the QTH do not exhibit worsening deformation compared to the surrounding natural terrain in both seasonal deformation and long-term velocities and QTR exhibits better stability and maintenance status than QTH. Approximately 15 km of QTH segments and 11 km of QTR segments exhibit long-term settlement rates more than 5 mm/a greater than those of nearby natural terrain. Cooling measures markedly suppress seasonal deformation, with only 9 km of QTH segments showing seasonal deformation exceeding adjacent natural terrain by more than 5 mm. This study provides a systematic framework for assessing route-scale transportation stability and the performance of cooling engineering measures in permafrost terrains, providing guidance for long-term maintenance and future engineering works.
{"title":"Evaluation of stability and cooling engineering effectiveness of the Qinghai-Tibet transportation routes: A first comprehensive assessment using space geodetic observations","authors":"Lingxiao Wang , Lin Zhao , Shibo Liu , Huayun Zhou , Guojie Hu , Defu Zou , Erji Du , Guangyue Liu , Yao Xiao , Yueli Chen , Jianting Zhao , Wei Chen , Xueying Wang , Chong Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108502","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108502","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The warming and thawing of ice-rich permafrost present major challenges for the stability of linear infrastructure across cold regions. The Qinghai-Tibet Railway (QTR) and Highway (QTH), two critical transportation corridors on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, traverse extensive warm and ice-rich permafrost where maintaining long-term embankment stability has become a complex engineering challenge. A systematic evaluation of roadway stability and the effectiveness of engineered cooling measures is essential for ensuring safe operation and for guiding maintenance strategies. However, comprehensive route-scale assessments remain scarce due to the lack of suitable evaluation methods. In this study, we provide the first systematic assessment of the stability of ∼890 km of the QTR and QTH and the effectiveness of cooling engineering measures based on ground deformation through Sentinel-1 SBAS-InSAR monitoring. The performance of cooling measures is quantified by comparing deformation between road surface and adjacent natural terrain, and the dominant environmental and engineering controls on deformation variability are identified. Results reveal that geomorphological and ground thermal conditions strongly govern permafrost terrain deformation, with unstable segments concentrated where ground temperatures approach 0 °C, particularly across lacustrine plains and fluvial terraces. Overall, 92.8 % of the QTR and 86.7 % of the QTH do not exhibit worsening deformation compared to the surrounding natural terrain in both seasonal deformation and long-term velocities and QTR exhibits better stability and maintenance status than QTH. Approximately 15 km of QTH segments and 11 km of QTR segments exhibit long-term settlement rates more than 5 mm/a greater than those of nearby natural terrain. Cooling measures markedly suppress seasonal deformation, with only 9 km of QTH segments showing seasonal deformation exceeding adjacent natural terrain by more than 5 mm. This study provides a systematic framework for assessing route-scale transportation stability and the performance of cooling engineering measures in permafrost terrains, providing guidance for long-term maintenance and future engineering works.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108502"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732134","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-08DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108503
Huicong Hu , Chao-Sheng Tang , Zhengtao Shen , Xiaohua Pan , Kai Gu , Mengtao Wang , Wen Mu , Bao-Jun Wang , Huan Liu , Zhihan Ji , Weiqiang Li
The hydro-mechanical properties of heavy metal contaminated soil can be significantly altered during rainfall events, which may affect the leaching, migration, and dispersion of heavy metals. Enhancing the structural strength and water stability of soils may be a viable strategy to cope with the effects of rainfall. This study proposes a novel treatment, referred to as the BM treatment, which combines biochar and microbial induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) technology, aiming at effectively improving hydro-mechanical response of soil and remediating heavy metal contamination. Targeting lead (Pb) as the contaminant, we experimentally introduced biochar into Pb contaminated Xiashu soil, a silt clay, followed by MICP treatment cycles ranging from 3 to 10. The structural strength and water stability of the contaminated soil were assessed through penetration and slaking tests, respectively. The mobility of Pb was evaluated based on the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP). The surface morphology of the soils was explored using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The results showed that BM treatment significantly improved the hydro-mechanical response and reduced Pb mobility, with these effects being notably correlated with the number of MICP treatment cycles. The improved remediation was attributed to synergistic effect of biochar and MICP. Biochar facilitated microbial activity, penetration of MICP solution, and Pb adsorption. MICP generated calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to fill pores, protect biochar, and immobilize Pb. They formed effective cementing areas and surface barriers to buffer against rainfall-induced mechanical stress and heavy metal desorption. This study provides valuable insights for improving climate adaptation and environmental remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil.
{"title":"Improving hydro-mechanical response of heavy metal contaminated soil to rainfall events through combination of biochar and microbial induced carbonate precipitation (BM) treatment","authors":"Huicong Hu , Chao-Sheng Tang , Zhengtao Shen , Xiaohua Pan , Kai Gu , Mengtao Wang , Wen Mu , Bao-Jun Wang , Huan Liu , Zhihan Ji , Weiqiang Li","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108503","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108503","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The hydro-mechanical properties of heavy metal contaminated soil can be significantly altered during rainfall events, which may affect the leaching, migration, and dispersion of heavy metals. Enhancing the structural strength and water stability of soils may be a viable strategy to cope with the effects of rainfall. This study proposes a novel treatment, referred to as the BM treatment, which combines biochar and microbial induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) technology, aiming at effectively improving hydro-mechanical response of soil and remediating heavy metal contamination. Targeting lead (Pb) as the contaminant, we experimentally introduced biochar into Pb contaminated Xiashu soil, a silt clay, followed by MICP treatment cycles ranging from 3 to 10. The structural strength and water stability of the contaminated soil were assessed through penetration and slaking tests, respectively. The mobility of Pb was evaluated based on the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP). The surface morphology of the soils was explored using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The results showed that BM treatment significantly improved the hydro-mechanical response and reduced Pb mobility, with these effects being notably correlated with the number of MICP treatment cycles. The improved remediation was attributed to synergistic effect of biochar and MICP. Biochar facilitated microbial activity, penetration of MICP solution, and Pb adsorption. MICP generated calcium carbonate (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) to fill pores, protect biochar, and immobilize Pb. They formed effective cementing areas and surface barriers to buffer against rainfall-induced mechanical stress and heavy metal desorption. This study provides valuable insights for improving climate adaptation and environmental remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108503"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2025-12-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145704919","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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