Pub Date : 2026-01-12DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2026.3652719
Yuanju Cao;Caoyang Yu;Xianbo Xiang;Lian Lian
Exploration of confined underwater environments—such as polar subice regions, submerged caves, shipwreck interiors, flooded water-conveyance tunnels, and enclosed test tanks—has garnered increasing research interest. Conventional sensing modalities, including optical imaging, passive acoustics, and tethered active sonar systems, encounter substantial limitations in such settings. Low-cost mechanically scanning imaging sonar (MSIS) systems offer a promising alternative. However, MSIS measurements are severely affected by multipath artifacts inherent to acoustic propagation in enclosed spaces, which obscure true structural boundaries and pose significant challenges to robust underwater perception. To address these challenges, a complete MSIS-based mapping framework is developed for confined environments. By reconstructing physically interpretable angle-range representations from discrete time-domain echo signals extracted directly from the MSIS serial stream, we propose two boundary extraction strategies: an adaptive thresholding-based method and a lightweight deep segmentation network termed MSIS-Net. To eliminate multipath artifacts and recover true structural contours, a novel graph-based acoustic front extraction (GAFE) algorithm is developed, leveraging acoustic propagation priors for directionally guided path tracing. Experimental validation is conducted in real-world tank environments of varying scale, demonstrating the robustness and decimeter-level accuracy of the proposed framework. In support of further research, we release the confined-MSIS dataset, the first open-access dataset tailored to confined-space acoustic mapping using MSIS.
{"title":"Low-Cost Mechanical Sonar Mapping With Artifact Removal in Confined Spaces","authors":"Yuanju Cao;Caoyang Yu;Xianbo Xiang;Lian Lian","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2026.3652719","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2026.3652719","url":null,"abstract":"Exploration of confined underwater environments—such as polar subice regions, submerged caves, shipwreck interiors, flooded water-conveyance tunnels, and enclosed test tanks—has garnered increasing research interest. Conventional sensing modalities, including optical imaging, passive acoustics, and tethered active sonar systems, encounter substantial limitations in such settings. Low-cost mechanically scanning imaging sonar (MSIS) systems offer a promising alternative. However, MSIS measurements are severely affected by multipath artifacts inherent to acoustic propagation in enclosed spaces, which obscure true structural boundaries and pose significant challenges to robust underwater perception. To address these challenges, a complete MSIS-based mapping framework is developed for confined environments. By reconstructing physically interpretable angle-range representations from discrete time-domain echo signals extracted directly from the MSIS serial stream, we propose two boundary extraction strategies: an adaptive thresholding-based method and a lightweight deep segmentation network termed MSIS-Net. To eliminate multipath artifacts and recover true structural contours, a novel graph-based acoustic front extraction (GAFE) algorithm is developed, leveraging acoustic propagation priors for directionally guided path tracing. Experimental validation is conducted in real-world tank environments of varying scale, demonstrating the robustness and decimeter-level accuracy of the proposed framework. In support of further research, we release the confined-MSIS dataset, the first open-access dataset tailored to confined-space acoustic mapping using MSIS.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-12"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146026477","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-05DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2025.3650235
Yang Zhou;Zhe Pei;Li Yu;Wenjie Wu;Huafeng Liu;Jinquan Liu
Nano-g accelerometers are used in high-precision applications where frequency response consistency (FRC) across devices can outweigh individual calibration accuracy. In scenarios such as gravity gradient measurements on moving platforms, strong motion disturbances make this consistency assessment and compensation essential, yet challenging with conventional methods. This article proposes a method of precisely evaluating accelerometer FRC by introducing an auxiliary reference frequency in addition to the test frequency. Two accelerometers are excited side by side during the sweep test. Systematic analysis indicates that it can significantly suppress dominant common-mode errors, which result from the test apparatus, the monitoring instruments, the accelerometer under test, and their susceptibility to the environmental conditions in such an FRC test. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method yields substantially more precise evaluation of the FRC than individually testing every accelerometer. A compensation filter is accordingly designed to correct the inconsistency between two self-developed accelerometers, improving amplitude consistency to better than 10 ppm and phase consistency to better than $10~mu $ rad.
{"title":"Precise Evaluation of Frequency Response Consistency Between Accelerometers by Exciting With Dual-Frequency Vibration","authors":"Yang Zhou;Zhe Pei;Li Yu;Wenjie Wu;Huafeng Liu;Jinquan Liu","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650235","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650235","url":null,"abstract":"Nano-g accelerometers are used in high-precision applications where frequency response consistency (FRC) across devices can outweigh individual calibration accuracy. In scenarios such as gravity gradient measurements on moving platforms, strong motion disturbances make this consistency assessment and compensation essential, yet challenging with conventional methods. This article proposes a method of precisely evaluating accelerometer FRC by introducing an auxiliary reference frequency in addition to the test frequency. Two accelerometers are excited side by side during the sweep test. Systematic analysis indicates that it can significantly suppress dominant common-mode errors, which result from the test apparatus, the monitoring instruments, the accelerometer under test, and their susceptibility to the environmental conditions in such an FRC test. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method yields substantially more precise evaluation of the FRC than individually testing every accelerometer. A compensation filter is accordingly designed to correct the inconsistency between two self-developed accelerometers, improving amplitude consistency to better than 10 ppm and phase consistency to better than <inline-formula> <tex-math>$10~mu $ </tex-math></inline-formula>rad.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-10"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982269","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-05DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2025.3650245
Jixi Lu;Xiaoyan Gao;Shuying Wang;Yibo Qi;Nuozhou Xu;Xihui Ye;Lei Wang
In precision magnetic field measurement, the combination system of magnetic shielding devices and coils is essential to provide a stable and controllable magnetic field environment. However, close proximity between coils and shielding introduces severe coupling effects that degrade performance of the system. Self-shielded coil is conventionally used to reduce this effect, but its suppression effect is limited, and its nested configuration causes a large volume waste. To address the problem, we propose a novel design method for coupling-free magnetic field coil set, including main coils and shielded coils, at identical surface inside magnetic shielding systems, which can achieve ultrahigh coupling-resistance and uniformity with maximum space saving. Based on the Fourier-Bessel function and magnetic field boundary condition, analytical models for magnetic field of the designed coils set under free and ferromagnetic boundaries are established, respectively. Through comparative analysis, the additional term caused by the coupling effect is separated, which enables the complete suppression of the coupling effect at the source. In addition, the quantum-inspired genetic algorithm (QIGA) is employed to solve the complex problem with strong constraints of higher performance and identical surface configuration efficiently. Taking the most commonly used circular coils in the shielding cylinder as the optimization object, we carry out the optimization. Experimental results demonstrate that our optimized coils reduce coupling factor to 0.28%, and improve uniformity to the order of $10^{-4}$ without any volume loss. The method can also be extended to other types of coils and magnetic shielding configurations to improve the accuracy of magnetic field measurement.
{"title":"Coupling-Free Magnetic Field Coils at Identical Surface Inside Magnetic Shielding Systems","authors":"Jixi Lu;Xiaoyan Gao;Shuying Wang;Yibo Qi;Nuozhou Xu;Xihui Ye;Lei Wang","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650245","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650245","url":null,"abstract":"In precision magnetic field measurement, the combination system of magnetic shielding devices and coils is essential to provide a stable and controllable magnetic field environment. However, close proximity between coils and shielding introduces severe coupling effects that degrade performance of the system. Self-shielded coil is conventionally used to reduce this effect, but its suppression effect is limited, and its nested configuration causes a large volume waste. To address the problem, we propose a novel design method for coupling-free magnetic field coil set, including main coils and shielded coils, at identical surface inside magnetic shielding systems, which can achieve ultrahigh coupling-resistance and uniformity with maximum space saving. Based on the Fourier-Bessel function and magnetic field boundary condition, analytical models for magnetic field of the designed coils set under free and ferromagnetic boundaries are established, respectively. Through comparative analysis, the additional term caused by the coupling effect is separated, which enables the complete suppression of the coupling effect at the source. In addition, the quantum-inspired genetic algorithm (QIGA) is employed to solve the complex problem with strong constraints of higher performance and identical surface configuration efficiently. Taking the most commonly used circular coils in the shielding cylinder as the optimization object, we carry out the optimization. Experimental results demonstrate that our optimized coils reduce coupling factor to 0.28%, and improve uniformity to the order of <inline-formula> <tex-math>$10^{-4}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> without any volume loss. The method can also be extended to other types of coils and magnetic shielding configurations to improve the accuracy of magnetic field measurement.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-9"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982367","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2025.3650260
Qihang Xu;Jiaming Liu;Mengmeng Guan;Wei Su;Zhiguang Wang;Zhongqiang Hu;Ming Liu
Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) angle sensors are widely utilized in industrial applications owing to their noncontact operation, cost efficiency, and miniaturization potential. However, harmonic distortion inherent in AMR measurements fundamentally limits angle encoder accuracy. This work introduces a high-precision AMR sensor employing a wave-type topology that suppresses harmonic errors through geometric innovation, demonstrating significant performance enhancements versus conventional strip-type sensors: 64.3% reduction in maximum angular error (0.50° versus 1.4°), 65.3% lower worst-case nonlinearity (0.2% versus 0.576%), and minimal change in repeatability (0.14° versus 0.137°). Systematic evaluation of dynamic responses under variable field angles through Stoner–Wohlfarth modeling and experimental validation exhibits excellent agreement, confirming curvature optimization effectively minimizes angular errors. Mechanistic analysis identifies demagnetizing fields and induced anisotropy as dominant error sources. Crucially, this architecture maintains fabrication simplicity, demonstrating exceptional cost-performance synergy for automotive, robotics, and industrial automation applications requiring sub-0.5° accuracy.
{"title":"Reduced Harmonic Errors by Geometrically Modulating the Demagnetizing Fields in Wave-Type Anisotropic Magnetoresistance Angle Sensors","authors":"Qihang Xu;Jiaming Liu;Mengmeng Guan;Wei Su;Zhiguang Wang;Zhongqiang Hu;Ming Liu","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650260","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650260","url":null,"abstract":"Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) angle sensors are widely utilized in industrial applications owing to their noncontact operation, cost efficiency, and miniaturization potential. However, harmonic distortion inherent in AMR measurements fundamentally limits angle encoder accuracy. This work introduces a high-precision AMR sensor employing a wave-type topology that suppresses harmonic errors through geometric innovation, demonstrating significant performance enhancements versus conventional strip-type sensors: 64.3% reduction in maximum angular error (0.50° versus 1.4°), 65.3% lower worst-case nonlinearity (0.2% versus 0.576%), and minimal change in repeatability (0.14° versus 0.137°). Systematic evaluation of dynamic responses under variable field angles through Stoner–Wohlfarth modeling and experimental validation exhibits excellent agreement, confirming curvature optimization effectively minimizes angular errors. Mechanistic analysis identifies demagnetizing fields and induced anisotropy as dominant error sources. Crucially, this architecture maintains fabrication simplicity, demonstrating exceptional cost-performance synergy for automotive, robotics, and industrial automation applications requiring sub-0.5° accuracy.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-12"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982316","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2025.3650265
Hanshi Li;Weinan Xie;Qi Wang;Guoxing Yi;Changhong Wang
The performance of the hemispherical resonator gyro (HRG) in whole-angle (WA) mode is affected by the angle-dependent harmonic drift. Suppressing this drift is essential to improve its temperature stability and operational range. In this article, a novel real-time method for eliminating harmonic drift based on a forward and reverse precession (FRP) control scheme is proposed. First, the sources of harmonic drift in HRG are analyzed. The HRG dynamical equations incorporating multiple error sources are derived and analyzed through numerical simulation. Subsequently, a real-time error identification algorithm is developed and validated through simulation. Finally, a temperature experiment is conducted to validate the method. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can accurately identify and compensate for errors at different temperatures, effectively suppressing the harmonic components in angular velocity by more than 97%. The bias instability (BI) of the HRG remains consistently around $0.024boldsymbol {^{circ }}$ /h across various temperatures, indicating strong temperature stability. Additionally, the scale-factor nonlinearity (SFN) is reduced fivefold to 0.84 ppm. Most importantly, this method can be applied to all Coriolis vibratory gyroscopes to effectively eliminate their common angle-dependent harmonic drift.
{"title":"Real-Time Elimination of Harmonic Drift for Hemispherical Resonator Gyro Based on FRP Control Scheme","authors":"Hanshi Li;Weinan Xie;Qi Wang;Guoxing Yi;Changhong Wang","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650265","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650265","url":null,"abstract":"The performance of the hemispherical resonator gyro (HRG) in whole-angle (WA) mode is affected by the angle-dependent harmonic drift. Suppressing this drift is essential to improve its temperature stability and operational range. In this article, a novel real-time method for eliminating harmonic drift based on a forward and reverse precession (FRP) control scheme is proposed. First, the sources of harmonic drift in HRG are analyzed. The HRG dynamical equations incorporating multiple error sources are derived and analyzed through numerical simulation. Subsequently, a real-time error identification algorithm is developed and validated through simulation. Finally, a temperature experiment is conducted to validate the method. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can accurately identify and compensate for errors at different temperatures, effectively suppressing the harmonic components in angular velocity by more than 97%. The bias instability (BI) of the HRG remains consistently around <inline-formula> <tex-math>$0.024boldsymbol {^{circ }}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>/h across various temperatures, indicating strong temperature stability. Additionally, the scale-factor nonlinearity (SFN) is reduced fivefold to 0.84 ppm. Most importantly, this method can be applied to all Coriolis vibratory gyroscopes to effectively eliminate their common angle-dependent harmonic drift.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-13"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982362","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2025.3650246
Ingyo Jeong;Jiho Ryoo;Soohee Han
Time-of-flight (ToF) cameras provide cost-effective 3-D depth sensing but are constrained by limited dynamic range, hindering reliable performance in scenes with large variations in distance and reflectance. To overcome this limitation, this study proposes a deep learning-based high dynamic range (HDR) approach, DeepToF-HDR. The method combines two key neural networks: an exposure-time selection network (ESN) that dynamically adjusts scene-dependent exposure times, and a depth fusion network (DFN) that integrates multi-exposure-ToF measurements. A composite loss function with end-to-end joint training is employed to ensure stable and synergistic optimization of both networks. Under identical exposure-time configurations, experiments on a real multi-exposure ToF dataset show that DeepToF-HDR achieves a 54.1% reduction in the mean absolute error (MAE) of the depth compared with conventional baselines. Comparable accuracy is also achieved with less than half the number of captures and only 28% of the total exposure time, demonstrating superior accuracy and efficiency.
{"title":"Learning-Based High Dynamic Range Imaging for Time-of-Flight Cameras","authors":"Ingyo Jeong;Jiho Ryoo;Soohee Han","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650246","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650246","url":null,"abstract":"Time-of-flight (ToF) cameras provide cost-effective 3-D depth sensing but are constrained by limited dynamic range, hindering reliable performance in scenes with large variations in distance and reflectance. To overcome this limitation, this study proposes a deep learning-based high dynamic range (HDR) approach, DeepToF-HDR. The method combines two key neural networks: an exposure-time selection network (ESN) that dynamically adjusts scene-dependent exposure times, and a depth fusion network (DFN) that integrates multi-exposure-ToF measurements. A composite loss function with end-to-end joint training is employed to ensure stable and synergistic optimization of both networks. Under identical exposure-time configurations, experiments on a real multi-exposure ToF dataset show that DeepToF-HDR achieves a 54.1% reduction in the mean absolute error (MAE) of the depth compared with conventional baselines. Comparable accuracy is also achieved with less than half the number of captures and only 28% of the total exposure time, demonstrating superior accuracy and efficiency.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-10"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982284","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Multilayer complex structures are widely used in the energy and power industries. However, due to the combined effects of multiple media layers and complex curved surfaces, using phased array ultrasonic inspection to check their internal structures and defects is still extremely challenging. This article proposed a two-stage array ultrasonic method for the inspection of internal structures. In the first stage, a low-frequency full waveform inversion (FWI) was used to characterize the complicated internal structure, overcoming the challenge of a priori velocity estimation while improving computational efficiency by 75% compared to full-spectrum FWI. In the second stage, a nonlinear synthetic focusing imaging method was utilized to achieve high-resolution imaging of internal defects. To further reduce the computation time for beam path estimation, an Eikonal equation-based method was introduced. The proposed method improves computational efficiency by approximately 96.85% and 93.93% compared to the traditional binary search and Fermat’s principle-based shortest path algorithms, respectively. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method can effectively detect internal defects within multilayer complex structures. Compared with the conventional array ultrasonic full focusing method, the global contrast index ($C_{G}$ ) value increased by 2.87 times, while the array performance indicator (API) value decreased by 88.73%.
{"title":"Ultrasonic Waveform Inversion and Nonlinear Synthetic Focusing Imaging in Multilayered Complex Structures","authors":"Tiantian Zhu;Zhenggan Zhou;Hafiz Ejaz Ahmad;Jingtao Yu;Wenbin Zhou","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650270","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650270","url":null,"abstract":"Multilayer complex structures are widely used in the energy and power industries. However, due to the combined effects of multiple media layers and complex curved surfaces, using phased array ultrasonic inspection to check their internal structures and defects is still extremely challenging. This article proposed a two-stage array ultrasonic method for the inspection of internal structures. In the first stage, a low-frequency full waveform inversion (FWI) was used to characterize the complicated internal structure, overcoming the challenge of a priori velocity estimation while improving computational efficiency by 75% compared to full-spectrum FWI. In the second stage, a nonlinear synthetic focusing imaging method was utilized to achieve high-resolution imaging of internal defects. To further reduce the computation time for beam path estimation, an Eikonal equation-based method was introduced. The proposed method improves computational efficiency by approximately 96.85% and 93.93% compared to the traditional binary search and Fermat’s principle-based shortest path algorithms, respectively. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method can effectively detect internal defects within multilayer complex structures. Compared with the conventional array ultrasonic full focusing method, the global contrast index (<inline-formula> <tex-math>$C_{G}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>) value increased by 2.87 times, while the array performance indicator (API) value decreased by 88.73%.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-13"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145929433","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study proposes a novel differential eddy current inductive displacement sensor (ECIS) that achieves synchronous three-axis (XYZ) displacement measurement, overcoming the limitations of traditional single-axis detection. The sensor incorporates a spiral excitation coil, an aluminum target, and differential receiving coils bonded to the target surface. A hybrid-domain optimization framework combining theoretical modeling and finite-element analysis (FEA) was developed to address the challenges of multiphysics coupling in proximity to conductive targets. The coil geometry was systematically optimized through numerical calculations to maximize sensitivity while suppressing cross-axis interference. Experimental validation demonstrated a displacement range of $pm 1500~mu $ m in the $x$ - and $y$ -axes and $pm 130~mu $ m in the $z$ -axis, achieving quasistatic resolutions of 10, 13, and 0.45 nm, respectively. The cross-sensitivity between axes was maintained below ±0.5%. The sensor’s thermal stability was enhanced through Zerodur glass probe structures and differential topology, yielding a temperature drift coefficient of 162 ppm/°C. These results validate the proposed optimization methodology and highlight the sensor’s potential for ultraprecision metrology.
{"title":"A Noncontact 3-Degree-of-Freedom Displacement Sensor With Nanoscale Resolution","authors":"Shuyu Zhu;Rongjie Li;Tao Xu;Zilong Feng;Lizhuang Yan;Zhihua Feng","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650281","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650281","url":null,"abstract":"This study proposes a novel differential eddy current inductive displacement sensor (ECIS) that achieves synchronous three-axis (XYZ) displacement measurement, overcoming the limitations of traditional single-axis detection. The sensor incorporates a spiral excitation coil, an aluminum target, and differential receiving coils bonded to the target surface. A hybrid-domain optimization framework combining theoretical modeling and finite-element analysis (FEA) was developed to address the challenges of multiphysics coupling in proximity to conductive targets. The coil geometry was systematically optimized through numerical calculations to maximize sensitivity while suppressing cross-axis interference. Experimental validation demonstrated a displacement range of <inline-formula> <tex-math>$pm 1500~mu $ </tex-math></inline-formula>m in the <inline-formula> <tex-math>$x$ </tex-math></inline-formula>- and <inline-formula> <tex-math>$y$ </tex-math></inline-formula>-axes and <inline-formula> <tex-math>$pm 130~mu $ </tex-math></inline-formula>m in the <inline-formula> <tex-math>$z$ </tex-math></inline-formula>-axis, achieving quasistatic resolutions of 10, 13, and 0.45 nm, respectively. The cross-sensitivity between axes was maintained below ±0.5%. The sensor’s thermal stability was enhanced through Zerodur glass probe structures and differential topology, yielding a temperature drift coefficient of 162 ppm/°C. These results validate the proposed optimization methodology and highlight the sensor’s potential for ultraprecision metrology.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-11"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982124","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01DOI: 10.1109/TIM.2025.3650290
Yi Liu;Xueping Xu;Chunbo Han
To solve the problems of the traditional magnetic shielding cylinders compensation coil system, such as complex structure, large volume, and insufficient flexibility of magnetic field (MF) adjustment, this study proposes a design method of $d$ single-layer dynamically variable multichannel orthogonal array coils (DVM-OACs) in a spindle-shaped magnetic shielding cylinder (sMSC). It uses an array of orthogonal crossed wires on a single-layer curved grid (R- and A-directions). Through multichannel independent control and dynamic current regulation, the DVM-OAC achieves precise generation and real-time compensation of three-axis (x, y, and z) uniform MF. Compared with the traditional structure of three independent Helmholtz coils stacked on top of each other, the DVM-OAC integrates the three-axis function in a single physical space, which reduces the volume by about 21.46%. The percentage of the space where the uniformity of the DVM-OAC is less than 3% reaches 3.98%, which is much larger than that of the three-axis Helmholtz coils, which is 0.82%. Experiments indicate that DVM-OAC can ensure high triaxial MF uniformity in the center region of sMSC, which is consistent with the theoretical results. This technology provides a new idea for high-precision magnetic environment regulation, which is especially suitable for wearable devices, implantable medical devices, and other scenarios with stringent requirements for lightweighting and flexibility.
{"title":"A Study of 3-D Magnetic Field Regulation Method With Dynamically Variable Multichannel Orthogonal Array Coils","authors":"Yi Liu;Xueping Xu;Chunbo Han","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3650290","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3650290","url":null,"abstract":"To solve the problems of the traditional magnetic shielding cylinders compensation coil system, such as complex structure, large volume, and insufficient flexibility of magnetic field (MF) adjustment, this study proposes a design method of <inline-formula> <tex-math>$d$ </tex-math></inline-formula> single-layer dynamically variable multichannel orthogonal array coils (DVM-OACs) in a spindle-shaped magnetic shielding cylinder (sMSC). It uses an array of orthogonal crossed wires on a single-layer curved grid (R- and A-directions). Through multichannel independent control and dynamic current regulation, the DVM-OAC achieves precise generation and real-time compensation of three-axis (x, y, and z) uniform MF. Compared with the traditional structure of three independent Helmholtz coils stacked on top of each other, the DVM-OAC integrates the three-axis function in a single physical space, which reduces the volume by about 21.46%. The percentage of the space where the uniformity of the DVM-OAC is less than 3% reaches 3.98%, which is much larger than that of the three-axis Helmholtz coils, which is 0.82%. Experiments indicate that DVM-OAC can ensure high triaxial MF uniformity in the center region of sMSC, which is consistent with the theoretical results. This technology provides a new idea for high-precision magnetic environment regulation, which is especially suitable for wearable devices, implantable medical devices, and other scenarios with stringent requirements for lightweighting and flexibility.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-10"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145982337","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Marine gearboxes operating long-term in high-temperature, high-humidity, and high-salinity mist marine environments are highly susceptible to corrosion faults, posing significant threats to the reliability and safety of shipboard equipment. Ultrasonic testing (UT) technology, with its noncontact and remote capabilities, is well-suited for inspecting complex workpieces in such adverse conditions. To address the limitations of existing quantitative corrosion detection methods for gearboxes, while fully leveraging the nondestructiveness and information integrity advantages of ultrasonic nondestructive testing technology, this article proposes the wavelet time–frequency attention fusion network (WAFN), an ultrasonic signal-based method for gearbox corrosion detection. The method first constructs an optimized four-channel parallel ConvNeXt network (multichannel time–frequency feature extraction (MCFE) module) for deep feature extraction. Subsequently, a Transformer encoder module is introduced to fuse global features and capture cross-channel spatial dependencies. Then, a symmetric multichannel cross-attention feature fusion (CAFF) module realizes adaptive weighted fusion of local and global features. Finally, a supervised collaborative contrast loss (SCCL) training mechanism is designed, combining feature loss and classification loss to pull features of the same corrosion level closer while pushing features of different levels apart. This effectively mitigates interference from intraclass variations and blurred interclass feature boundaries inherent in quantitative data, achieving quantitative nondestructive detection of gearbox corrosion. Experimental results show that the proposed model achieves higher comprehensive accuracy on the two datasets and in the supplementary experiments with actual plates, verifying the effectiveness of this method.
{"title":"Corrosion Detection of Gearbox Based on Wavelet Time–Frequency Attention Fusion Network","authors":"Tianyu Gao;Yongjiang Li;Jingli Yang;Yongqi Chang;Xiaopeng Fan;Meiyan Zhang","doi":"10.1109/TIM.2025.3644553","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3644553","url":null,"abstract":"Marine gearboxes operating long-term in high-temperature, high-humidity, and high-salinity mist marine environments are highly susceptible to corrosion faults, posing significant threats to the reliability and safety of shipboard equipment. Ultrasonic testing (UT) technology, with its noncontact and remote capabilities, is well-suited for inspecting complex workpieces in such adverse conditions. To address the limitations of existing quantitative corrosion detection methods for gearboxes, while fully leveraging the nondestructiveness and information integrity advantages of ultrasonic nondestructive testing technology, this article proposes the wavelet time–frequency attention fusion network (WAFN), an ultrasonic signal-based method for gearbox corrosion detection. The method first constructs an optimized four-channel parallel ConvNeXt network (multichannel time–frequency feature extraction (MCFE) module) for deep feature extraction. Subsequently, a Transformer encoder module is introduced to fuse global features and capture cross-channel spatial dependencies. Then, a symmetric multichannel cross-attention feature fusion (CAFF) module realizes adaptive weighted fusion of local and global features. Finally, a supervised collaborative contrast loss (SCCL) training mechanism is designed, combining feature loss and classification loss to pull features of the same corrosion level closer while pushing features of different levels apart. This effectively mitigates interference from intraclass variations and blurred interclass feature boundaries inherent in quantitative data, achieving quantitative nondestructive detection of gearbox corrosion. Experimental results show that the proposed model achieves higher comprehensive accuracy on the two datasets and in the supplementary experiments with actual plates, verifying the effectiveness of this method.","PeriodicalId":13341,"journal":{"name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","volume":"75 ","pages":"1-13"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-12-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145904313","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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