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Validating Rules: A non-verbal free fluid intelligence test 验证规则：非语言自由流体智力测试

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-05-29 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101923

Sofie Van Cauwenberghe , Stijn Schelfhout , Elisabeth Roels , Jordi Heeren , Lieve De Wachter , Wouter Duyck , Nicolas Dirix

Intelligence is one of the strongest predictors of academic achievement. Fluid intelligence is one part of the construct, that can be measured by deductive and inductive reasoning. We set up a validation study of a free, non-verbal fluid intelligence test (Rules) in the context of study orientation. In this study, we investigate the reliability, distribution and structural validity of Rules, consisting of 28 items. Evidence from confirmatory multidimensional item response theory models suggests structural validity of the non-verbal reasoning test. For construct validity, a cross-validation between Rules and Raven's 2 Progressive Matrices in a sample of 235 last-year secondary school students resulted in a correlation of 0.62. Furthermore, we analyzed the predictive validity of the non-verbal reasoning test, which was administered to 32,585 last-year secondary school students. A standardized mathematics and language test were administered as a proxy for academic achievement scores. The results confirmed the predictive validity of the non-verbal reasoning test for cognitive achievement, with correlations of r = 0.61 for mathematics and r = 0.41 for language. Findings support the use of Rules in psychological practice, in particular for large-scale study exploration tools and low-stakes testing as a proxy for cognition or fluid reasoning.

智力是学术成就最有力的预测因素之一。流动智力是这个结构的一部分，可以通过演绎推理和归纳推理来衡量。我们在学习取向的背景下建立了一个自由的、非语言的流体智力测验（规则）的验证研究。在本研究中，我们研究了由28个条目组成的规则的信度、分布和结构效度。来自验证性多维项目反应理论模型的证据表明非言语推理测试具有结构效度。在构念效度方面，以235名初中生为样本，对规则与Raven’s 2递进矩阵进行交叉验证，相关系数为0.62。此外，我们分析了非语言推理测试的预测效度，该测试对32,585名高三学生进行了测试。一项标准化的数学和语言测试作为学业成绩的代表。结果证实了非语言推理测试对认知成就的预测有效性，数学和语言的相关性r = 0.61和r = 0.41。研究结果支持在心理学实践中使用规则，特别是在大规模研究探索工具和低风险测试中作为认知或流动推理的代理。

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引用次数: 0

Higher cognitive ability linked to weaker moral foundations in UK adults 英国成年人较高的认知能力与较弱的道德基础有关

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-05-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101930

Michael Zakharin, Timothy C. Bates

Existing research on the relationship between cognitive ability and moral foundations has yielded contradictory results. While some studies suggest that higher cognitive ability is associated with more enlightened moral intuitions, others indicate it may weaken moral foundations. To address this ambiguity, we conducted two studies (total N = 1320) using the Moral Foundations Questionnaire-2 (MFQ-2) with UK residents. Both Study 1 and Study 2 (preregistered) revealed negative links between cognitive ability and moral foundations. In Study 1, structural models showed negative links between general intelligence (g) and both binding (−0.24) and individualizing (−0.19) foundations. These findings replicated closely in Study 2, with similar coefficients (−0.25 and − 0.18, respectively). Higher verbal ability was specifically associated with lower purity scores. These findings suggest a negative association between cognitive ability and moral foundations, challenging existing theories relating to intelligence and moral intuitions. However, causal direction remains uncertain.

现有的关于认知能力与道德基础关系的研究得出了相互矛盾的结果。虽然一些研究表明，更高的认知能力与更开明的道德直觉有关，但也有研究表明，它可能会削弱道德基础。为了解决这种模糊性，我们对英国居民进行了两项研究（总N = 1320），使用道德基础问卷-2 （MFQ-2）。研究1和研究2（预登记）都揭示了认知能力和道德基础之间的负相关。在研究1中，结构模型显示一般智力(g)与结合基础（- 0.24）和个性化基础（- 0.19）之间存在负相关。这些发现在研究2中得到了密切的重复，具有相似的系数（分别为- 0.25和- 0.18）。较高的语言表达能力与较低的纯净度得分密切相关。这些发现表明认知能力和道德基础之间存在负相关，挑战了现有的有关智力和道德直觉的理论。然而，因果方向仍然不确定。

引用次数: 0

Psychometrically derived 60-question benchmarks: Substantial efficiencies and the possibility of human-AI comparisons 心理测量学衍生的60个问题基准：实质性的效率和人类与人工智能比较的可能性

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-05-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101922

Gilles E. Gignac , David Ilić

Large Language Model (LLM) benchmark evaluation tests often comprise thousands of questions. Based on psychometric principles, reliable and valid benchmark tests can likely be developed with as few as 60 items, comparable to human intelligence tests, which typically include only 15 to 60 items. The establishment of shorter benchmark tests offers numerous potential benefits, including more efficient evaluation of LLMs, the practical feasibility of creating parallel forms, and the ability to directly compare LLM performance with human capabilities. Consequently, we analysed the performance of 591 LLMs across three widely recognized benchmarks—HellaSwag, Winogrande, and GSM8K—and developed short-forms (≈ 60 questions each) using psychometric principles. The short-forms exhibited high internal consistency reliability, with coefficient omega values ranging from 0.96 for Winogrande to 0.99 for HellaSwag and GSM8K. Additionally, strong correlations between short- and long-form scores (r ≈ 0.90) provided evidence of concurrent validity. Finally, model size (number of parameters) was a slightly stronger predictor of overall LLM performance for the short-forms compared to the long-forms, indicating that the short forms exhibited comparable, if not slightly superior, convergent validity. It is concluded that shorter benchmarks may accelerate AI development by enabling more efficient evaluations. Additionally, research into the nature of intelligence may be facilitated by benchmark short-forms by enabling direct comparisons between AI and human performance.

大型语言模型（LLM）基准评估测试通常包含数千个问题。根据心理测量学原理，可靠和有效的基准测试可能只需要60个项目，而人类智力测试通常只包括15到60个项目。建立更短的基准测试提供了许多潜在的好处，包括更有效地评估LLM、创建并行表单的实际可行性，以及直接将LLM性能与人类能力进行比较的能力。因此，我们分析了591名法学硕士在三个广泛认可的基准（hellaswag、Winogrande和gsm8k）上的表现，并使用心理测量学原理开发了简短的表格（每个约60个问题）。短格式具有较高的内部一致性信度，Winogrande的欧米茄系数为0.96，HellaSwag和GSM8K的欧米茄系数为0.99。此外，短格式和长格式分数之间的强相关性（r≈0.90）提供了并发效度的证据。最后，与长格式相比，模型大小（参数数量）对短格式的整体LLM性能的预测略强，这表明短格式表现出相当的收敛效度，如果不是略优的话。结论是，更短的基准可以通过更有效的评估来加速人工智能的发展。此外，通过直接比较人工智能和人类的表现，基准简短形式可能会促进对智能本质的研究。

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引用次数: 0

Assessing the external validity of the ACT as a predictor for intelligence quotient scores 评估ACT作为智商分数预测因子的外部有效性

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-05-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101921

Jon Butler

In their 2008 study, Koenig, Frey, and Detterman found a strong predictive relationship between the ACT and a measure of general intelligence derived from the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). However, their proposed IQ proxy equation was estimated on the pre-1990 revision combined ACT English and Math sections, which will result in less accurate IQ estimates with newer ACT scores. The current study sought to address this limitation by proposing two revised IQ proxy equations, allowing for more accurate IQ estimates with the current iteration of the ACT. Koenig et al.'s original regression formula was also re-estimated when controlling for the effects of age in the measure of intelligence, revealing a stronger predictive relationship between the ACT and the ASVAB's general factor than previously reported. Furthermore, both revised models generalized well on unseen data, suggesting that the ACT has high external validity as an IQ proxy and can be used in research settings for this purpose. A method to correct for systematic prediction error in external regression model validation is also implemented and discussed.

在他们2008年的研究中，Koenig， Frey和Detterman发现ACT和来自武装部队职业能力测试（ASVAB）的一般智力测量之间有很强的预测关系。然而，他们提出的智商代理方程是在1990年以前的ACT英语和数学部分的修订版上估计的，这将导致在新的ACT分数上估计的智商不太准确。目前的研究试图通过提出两个修订的智商代理方程来解决这一限制，允许更准确的智商估计与当前的ACT迭代。Koenig等人的原始回归公式在控制智力测量中年龄的影响时也被重新估计，揭示了ACT和ASVAB的一般因素之间比以前报道的更强的预测关系。此外，这两个修正的模型都能很好地推广未见过的数据，这表明ACT作为智商代理具有很高的外部效度，可以用于这一目的的研究设置。对外部回归模型验证中系统预测误差的修正方法进行了实现和讨论。

引用次数: 0

Joint modeling of cognitive aging and survival: Evaluation of birth cohort differences 认知衰老和生存的联合建模：出生队列差异的评估

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-05-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101920

Valgeir Thorvaldsson , Ingmar Skoog , Boo Johansson

We examined generational differences in the associations between cognitive functioning (i.e., level and rate of change) and survival after age 70. Data were drawn from two population-based cohorts born in 1901–1907 (n = 1106) and 1930 (n = 896), each systematically sampled from the same city population and assessed on the same cognitive battery at ages 70, 75, 79, 85, 88, 90, 92, 95, 97, 99, and 100. Cognitive performance was indexed using a composite score derived from tests of spatial ability, perceptual-motor speed, and reasoning. Mortality data, obtained from the Swedish national population register, were complete for >99 % of the 1901–07 cohort and 39 % of the 1930 cohort (last update: April 2023). We fitted joint models for longitudinal cognitive change and survival, controlling for sex and education. Across both cohorts, a one SD lower cognitive level was associated with a 1.43-fold higher mortality hazard, 95 % HDI [1.34, 1.53]. Models including cohort interactions revealed stronger effects of cognitive level in the 1901–07 cohort (HR = 1.50 [1.39, 1.61]) compared to the 1930 cohort (HR = 1.26 [1.14, 1.40]). Moreover, steeper rates of cognitive decline were associated with increased mortality risk in the 1930 cohort (HR = 1.74 [1.40, 2.17]), but not in the 1901–07 cohort (HR = 1.07 [0.97, 1.77]). These findings suggest that cognitive level is a stronger mortality predictor among earlier-born cohorts, whereas rate of cognitive decline plays a larger role in later-born cohorts, highlighting cohort-specific differences in how cognitive aging informs survival probability.

我们研究了70岁以后认知功能（即水平和变化速度）与生存之间的代际差异。数据来自1901-1907年出生的两个以人口为基础的队列（n = 1106）和1930年出生的队列（n = 896），每个队列系统地从同一城市人口中取样，并在70、75、79、85、88、90、92、95、97、99和100岁时对相同的认知电池进行评估。认知表现是通过空间能力、感知运动速度和推理测试得出的综合分数来进行索引的。从瑞典国家人口登记处获得的死亡率数据显示，1901-07年队列中有99%和1930年队列中有39%（最后一次更新：2023年4月）是完整的。我们拟合了纵向认知变化和生存的联合模型，控制了性别和教育。在两个队列中，认知水平每降低一个SD，死亡风险增加1.43倍，即95% HDI[1.34, 1.53]。包括队列相互作用在内的模型显示，1901-07年队列中认知水平的影响（HR = 1.50[1.39, 1.61]）比1930年队列（HR = 1.26[1.14, 1.40]）更强。此外，在1930年队列中，认知能力下降的急剧率与死亡风险增加相关（HR = 1.74[1.40, 2.17]），但在1901-07年队列中没有相关（HR = 1.07[0.97, 1.77]）。这些发现表明，在出生较早的队列中，认知水平是一个更强的死亡率预测指标，而在出生较晚的队列中，认知能力下降的速度起着更大的作用，突出了认知衰老如何影响生存概率的队列特异性差异。

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引用次数: 0

The other half of intelligence: An obstacle-racecourse performance-based model of intelligence in action 智力的另一半以障碍赛跑成绩为基础的行动智力模型

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-04-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101919

Robert J. Sternberg

Intelligence in action, or as performance, is almost inevitably at a different level from intelligence as some theoretical level of competence. The article considers a metaphor of an obstacle race as illustrating how intelligence functions in everyday practice. Intelligence as performance always includes responses to the obstacles one confronts. The article opens with an introduction explaining the racetrack metaphor. The article then considers the various obstacles to the deployment of intelligence, including both primarily internal and primarily external obstacles. The article then considers three models for the relationship between intelligence as competence and intelligence as performance. Finally, the article draws some conclusions about intelligence as it acts in the everyday world.

行动中的智力，或作为表现的智力，几乎不可避免地与作为某种理论能力水平的智力处于不同的水平。这篇文章用一个障碍赛跑的比喻来说明智力在日常实践中是如何发挥作用的。智力作为一种表现，总是包括对所面临的障碍的反应。文章以介绍赛马场比喻作为开头。然后，文章考虑了部署情报的各种障碍，主要包括内部和外部障碍。然后，本文考虑了作为能力的智力和作为绩效的智力之间关系的三种模型。最后，文章得出了一些关于智能在日常生活中的作用的结论。

引用次数: 0

Reevaluating the Flynn effect, and the reversal: Temporal trends and measurement invariance in Norwegian armed forces intelligence scores 重新评估弗林效应和逆转：挪威武装部队智力得分的时间趋势和测量不变性

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-04-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101909

Morten Nordmo , Tore Nøttestad Norrøne , Ole Christian Lang-Ree

Since 1954, the Norwegian Armed Forces have annually administered an unchanged general mental ability test to male cohorts, comprising figure matrices, word similarities, and mathematical reasoning tests. These stable and representative data have supported various claims about shifts in general mental ability (GMA) levels, notably the Flynn effect and its reversal, influencing extensive research linking these scores with health and other outcomes. This study examines whether observed temporal trends in scores reflect changes in latent intelligence or are confounded by evolving test characteristics and specific test-taking abilities in numerical reasoning, word comprehension, and figure matrices reasoning. Our findings, using multiple-group factor analysis and multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC) models, indicate that while there was a general upward trend in observed scores until 1993, this was predominantly driven by enhancements in the fluid intelligence task, specifically figure matrices reasoning. Notably, these gains do not uniformly translate to a rise in underlying GMA, suggesting the presence of domain-specific improvements and test characteristic changes over time. Conversely, the observed decline is primarily due to decreases in word comprehension and numerical reasoning tests, also reflecting specific abilities not attributable to changes in the latent GMA factor. Our findings further challenge the validity of claims that changes in the general factor drive the Flynn effect and its reversal. Furthermore, they caution against using these scores for longitudinal studies without accounting for changes in test characteristics.

自1954年以来，挪威武装部队每年对男性进行一项不变的一般心理能力测试，包括图形矩阵、单词相似度和数学推理测试。这些稳定且具有代表性的数据支持了关于一般心理能力（GMA）水平变化的各种说法，特别是弗林效应及其逆转，影响了将这些分数与健康和其他结果联系起来的广泛研究。本研究探讨了观察到的分数的时间趋势是否反映了潜在智力的变化，或者是由不断发展的测试特征和特定的测试能力在数值推理、文字理解和图形矩阵推理中混淆。我们使用多组因素分析和多指标多原因（MIMIC）模型的研究结果表明，尽管在1993年之前观察到的分数总体呈上升趋势，但这主要是由流体智力任务的增强所驱动的，特别是图形矩阵推理。值得注意的是，这些收益并没有统一地转化为潜在GMA的上升，这表明随着时间的推移存在特定领域的改进和测试特征的变化。相反，观察到的下降主要是由于单词理解和数字推理测试的下降，也反映了不归因于潜在GMA因素变化的特定能力。我们的研究结果进一步挑战了一般因素的变化驱动弗林效应及其逆转的说法的有效性。此外，他们警告不要在没有考虑测试特征变化的情况下将这些分数用于纵向研究。

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引用次数: 0

Rigorous science, reported with social responsibility: Not a contradiction, but a synthesis 严谨的科学，报告的社会责任：不是矛盾，而是综合

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-03-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101910

Dragos Iliescu , Samuel Greiff

引用次数: 0

Looking beyond students' exploration and learning strategies: The role of test-taking effort in complex problem-solving 超越学生的探索和学习策略：应试努力在解决复杂问题中的作用

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-03-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101907

Róbert Csányi , Gyöngyvér Molnár

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of test-taking effort in knowledge acquisition via problem exploration behaviour used in complex problem-solving (CPS) environments. The sample consisted of undergraduate students just starting their university studies (n = 1748). MicroDYN-based tasks with different levels of complexity were administered via the eDia online platform. Students' exploration behaviour was coded based on the VOTAT (vary-one-thing-at-a-time) strategy, and latent class analysis was used to identify students' behavioural and learning profiles. We identified four profiles: rapid learners, non-performers, proficient explorers and ineffective learners. Students' test-taking effort was measured based on the time they spent on the tasks. Results suggest a strong relation between VOTAT strategy use and test-taking effort. Rapid learners and proficient explorers displayed the greatest test-taking effort, followed by ineffective learners and non-performers. The results provide a new interpretation of previous analyses of the knowledge acquisition phase in CPS.

本研究的目的是探讨在复杂问题解决（CPS）环境中，通过问题探索行为，应试努力在知识获取中的作用。样本包括刚开始大学学习的本科生（n = 1748）。基于microdyn的不同复杂程度的任务通过eDia在线平台进行管理。根据VOTAT（一次改变一件事）策略对学生的探索行为进行编码，并使用潜在类别分析来识别学生的行为和学习概况。我们确定了四种类型：快速学习者、不表现者、熟练探索者和无效学习者。学生的应试努力是根据他们花在任务上的时间来衡量的。结果表明，VOTAT策略的使用和应试努力之间存在很强的关系。快速学习者和熟练探索者表现出最大的应试努力，其次是低效学习者和表现不佳者。研究结果为CPS知识获取阶段的分析提供了新的解释。

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引用次数: 0

Exploring the interplay of general and specific academic achievement in predicting college performance 探索一般和特殊学业成绩在预测大学成绩方面的相互作用

IF 3.3 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Intelligence

Pub Date : 2025-03-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2025.101908

Khalid ALMamari, Mohamed Al Siyabi, Abdullah Al Shibli, Abdullah AlAjmi

Higher education admission policies typically prioritize Grade Point Average (GPA) as the primary criterion for college admissions, often overlooking the potential significance of specific academic achievements. This study contributes to the debate on the relative importance of general versus specific academic achievements in predicting college performance, an area less explored compared to the interplay between cognitive abilities and performance outcomes. This research analyzes twelfth-grade subject scores and college GPAs from four engineering programs (Aeronautical, System, Marine, and Civil) in Oman, as well as the combined sample. EFA and CFA results indicate that a bifactor achievement model, comprising general and two specific factors (Math-Science and Humanities-Social Sciences), adequately represents the twelfth-grade data. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) correlated these factors with college performance in the first, middle, and final years, separately for each program and the combined sample. The findings show that the Math-Science factor is the strongest predictor in the combined sample and Marine Engineering across all three years, while the general factor demonstrates broader but varying relevance in Aeronautical and Systems Engineering, especially in the middle and final years. The Humanities-Social Sciences factor has no significant impact at any level of study, and none of the factors predict performance in Civil Engineering. These results underscore the need to consider both general and specific academic achievements in admission predictive models, highlighting the dynamic interplay between program focus and student achievement profiles.

高等教育招生政策通常将平均学分绩点（GPA）作为大学录取的首要标准，而往往忽视了具体学业成绩的潜在重要性。与认知能力和成绩结果之间的相互作用相比，本研究在这一领域的探索较少。本研究分析了阿曼四个工程专业（航空、系统、海洋和土木）的十二年级科目成绩和大学平均学分绩点，以及综合样本。EFA和CFA结果表明，由一般因素和两个特殊因素（数学-科学和人文-社会科学）组成的双因素成就模型充分代表了十二年级的数据。结构方程模型（SEM）将这些因素与大学一年级、二年级和三年级的成绩联系起来，分别针对每个专业和综合样本。研究结果表明，数学-科学因子是综合样本和海洋工程专业所有三年级的最强预测因子，而一般因子在航空和系统工程专业中的相关性更广，但各不相同，尤其是在中期和最后一年。人文-社会科学因素在任何学习阶段都没有显著影响，没有一个因素能预测土木工程的成绩。这些结果凸显了在招生预测模型中同时考虑一般和特定学术成就的必要性，突出了专业重点和学生成绩概况之间的动态相互作用。

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