Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2026-01-19DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2026.100979
Rami Lee , Ji-Hun Kim , Jang-Uk Kim , Sung-Hee Hwang , Seung-Yeol Nah
We determined acetylcholine (ACh) amount from live Panax ginseng (PG), Panax quinquefolius (PQ), and other ginsengs. We found that PG has more ACh content than that of PQ. PG-derived ACh fraction decreased Daphnia pulex heart rate, which was inhibited by atropine. PG-ACh-mediated regulations of heart rate involve muscarinic cholinergic pathway.
{"title":"Ginseng acetylcholine from various ginsengs and its in vivo physiological effect","authors":"Rami Lee , Ji-Hun Kim , Jang-Uk Kim , Sung-Hee Hwang , Seung-Yeol Nah","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2026.100979","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2026.100979","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We determined acetylcholine (ACh) amount from live <em>Panax ginseng</em> (PG), <em>Panax quinquefolius</em> (PQ), and other ginsengs. We found that PG has more ACh content than that of PQ. PG-derived ACh fraction decreased <em>Daphnia pulex</em> heart rate, which was inhibited by atropine. PG-ACh-mediated regulations of heart rate involve muscarinic cholinergic pathway.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100979"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365405","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-08DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.003
Zhubin Zhang , Jin Cheng , Xin Chen , Huaying Wang , Ruiyi Li , Hancong Shao , Yufei Yang , Deping Wu , Xiaobin Jia , Bing Yang , Liang Feng
Background
P. ginseng is prized for its nutritional and medicinal properties, primarily due to the presence of ginsenosides. During thermal processing, ginsenosides undergo complex chemical reactions, including hydrolysis and elimination, generating rare ginsenosides with enhanced bioactivity. Deciphering these reaction patterns and mechanisms is crucial for optimizing processing techniques.
Methods
P. ginseng samples were processed at various temperatures and for different durations, and ginsenoside content was analyzed using UPLC. Thermodynamic parameters were calculated using Gaussian software, and molecular mechanics and frontier orbital theories were applied to predict reaction sites and explore mechanisms. Simulated reactions of reference solutions were used to verify the quantitative rules.
Results
Significant variations in ginsenoside content were observed across different temperatures and durations. Rb1 transformation peaks under moderate heat, selectively forming Rg5. Rg1 was readily transformed, producing Rh4 under harsh conditions and Rk3 under mild ones, allowing for product-specific tuning. Thermodynamic calculations revealed that most reactions had negative Gibbs free energy changes (ΔG), indicating spontaneity, with ΔG decreasing at higher temperatures. The HOMO-LUMO energy gaps of ginsenosides were less than 0.4, indicating high ginsenoside reactivity, and the energy difference between the LUMO of ginsenosides and the HOMO of H2O influenced hydrolysis reaction rates.
Conclusions
This study provides valuable insights into the chemical reaction patterns of ginsenosides during thermal processing. Temperature significantly impacts reaction direction, extent, and product selectivity. The findings establish a mechanistic foundation for optimizing P. ginseng processing conditions to achieve the desired ginsenoside profiles.
{"title":"Quantitative description and microscopic mechanism of ginsenosides’ reactions during the thermal-driven processing of Panax ginseng","authors":"Zhubin Zhang , Jin Cheng , Xin Chen , Huaying Wang , Ruiyi Li , Hancong Shao , Yufei Yang , Deping Wu , Xiaobin Jia , Bing Yang , Liang Feng","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>P. ginseng is prized for its nutritional and medicinal properties, primarily due to the presence of ginsenosides. During thermal processing, ginsenosides undergo complex chemical reactions, including hydrolysis and elimination, generating rare ginsenosides with enhanced bioactivity. Deciphering these reaction patterns and mechanisms is crucial for optimizing processing techniques.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>P. ginseng samples were processed at various temperatures and for different durations, and ginsenoside content was analyzed using UPLC. Thermodynamic parameters were calculated using Gaussian software, and molecular mechanics and frontier orbital theories were applied to predict reaction sites and explore mechanisms. Simulated reactions of reference solutions were used to verify the quantitative rules.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Significant variations in ginsenoside content were observed across different temperatures and durations. Rb1 transformation peaks under moderate heat, selectively forming Rg5. Rg1 was readily transformed, producing Rh4 under harsh conditions and Rk3 under mild ones, allowing for product-specific tuning. Thermodynamic calculations revealed that most reactions had negative Gibbs free energy changes (ΔG), indicating spontaneity, with ΔG decreasing at higher temperatures. The HOMO-LUMO energy gaps of ginsenosides were less than 0.4, indicating high ginsenoside reactivity, and the energy difference between the LUMO of ginsenosides and the HOMO of H<sub>2</sub>O influenced hydrolysis reaction rates.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>This study provides valuable insights into the chemical reaction patterns of ginsenosides during thermal processing. Temperature significantly impacts reaction direction, extent, and product selectivity. The findings establish a mechanistic foundation for optimizing P. ginseng processing conditions to achieve the desired ginsenoside profiles.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100915"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2026-01-20DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2026.100980
Jin Woo Lee , No-June Park , Yujung Jung , Prasannavenkatesh Durai , Yong Kee Kim , Keunwan Park , Su-Nam Kim
Background
The skin serves as a critical barrier that maintains physiological homeostasis while protecting the body from environmental insults. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are effective anti-inflammatory agents, but prolonged use can compromise skin barrier integrity. Mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) play a key role in GC-induced skin barrier dysfunction, although cross-talk with glucocorticoid receptors (GRs). This study investigates the potential of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) and its active component, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3(R)), in modulating MR-associated signaling and attenuate GC-induced skin barrier impairment.
Methods
MR transcriptional activity was assessed using luciferase reporter assays. Expression of SIRT1 and filaggrin, key markers of skin barrier function, was evaluated by quantitative PCR and Western blotting. MR knockdown with siRNA was performed to confirm its regulatory role. Molecular docking simulations predicted potential interactions between Rg3(R) and the MR ligand-binding domain.
Results
GC treatment enhanced MR activation, reducing SIRT1 and filaggrin levels and compromising barrier integrity. KRG, particularly Rg3(R), attenuated GC-induced MR transactivation and nuclear localization, restoring SIRT1 and filaggrin expression and preserving keratinocyte differentiation. MR knockdown corroborated the protective effect of MR-associated pathway modulation. Molecular docking suggested a plausible interaction between Rg3(R) and the MR through direct binding.
Conclusion
This study elucidates the pivotal role of MR in mediating GC-induced skin barrier dysfunction and identifies Rg3(R) from KRG as a promising therapeutic candidate for restoring skin barrier integrity. The findings provide a mechanistic basis for targeting MR signaling in the development of novel interventions for GC-associated skin disorders.
{"title":"Korean Red Ginseng attenuates glucocorticoid-induced skin barrier dysfunction via mineralocorticoid receptor modulation","authors":"Jin Woo Lee , No-June Park , Yujung Jung , Prasannavenkatesh Durai , Yong Kee Kim , Keunwan Park , Su-Nam Kim","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2026.100980","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2026.100980","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The skin serves as a critical barrier that maintains physiological homeostasis while protecting the body from environmental insults. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are effective anti-inflammatory agents, but prolonged use can compromise skin barrier integrity. Mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) play a key role in GC-induced skin barrier dysfunction, although cross-talk with glucocorticoid receptors (GRs). This study investigates the potential of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) and its active component, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3(R)), in modulating MR-associated signaling and attenuate GC-induced skin barrier impairment.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>MR transcriptional activity was assessed using luciferase reporter assays. Expression of SIRT1 and filaggrin, key markers of skin barrier function, was evaluated by quantitative PCR and Western blotting. MR knockdown with siRNA was performed to confirm its regulatory role. Molecular docking simulations predicted potential interactions between Rg3(R) and the MR ligand-binding domain.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>GC treatment enhanced MR activation, reducing SIRT1 and filaggrin levels and compromising barrier integrity. KRG, particularly Rg3(R), attenuated GC-induced MR transactivation and nuclear localization, restoring SIRT1 and filaggrin expression and preserving keratinocyte differentiation. MR knockdown corroborated the protective effect of MR-associated pathway modulation. Molecular docking suggested a plausible interaction between Rg3(R) and the MR through direct binding.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>This study elucidates the pivotal role of MR in mediating GC-induced skin barrier dysfunction and identifies Rg3(R) from KRG as a promising therapeutic candidate for restoring skin barrier integrity. The findings provide a mechanistic basis for targeting MR signaling in the development of novel interventions for GC-associated skin disorders.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100980"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-05DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.013
Ergang Wang , Changbao Chen, Qiong Li
Panax species—represented here by Panax ginseng Meyer, Panax quinquefolius L., and Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen—are valued for their saponins and polysaccharides and thus have significant clinical and commercial value. Rising global demand has driven intensive, large-scale cultivation, but repeated monoculture has produced persistent continuous cropping obstacles that now threaten the sustainability of the industry. These obstacles are not attributable to a single factor. Rather, they arise from interacting processes including degradation of soil physical and chemical properties, accumulation of plant-derived toxins that inhibit growth (allelopathic autotoxicity), and shifts in the soil microbial community that impair soil health and plant resilience. Together, these changes lead to stunted growth, reduced yields, and increased disease incidence. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding continuous cropping obstacles in Panax species. It evaluates evidence for the primary causal factors, assesses current mitigation strategies, and highlights areas where findings are robust or still uncertain. By integrating soil science, plant physiology, and microbial ecology, the review identifies practical approaches already in use and emerging technologies with potential to improve outcomes. Finally, we identify critical knowledge gaps and outline priority directions for future research aimed at clarifying mechanisms and translating that knowledge into an effective management framework. The ultimate goal is to provide a theoretical basis to guide the development of scalable, evidence-based practices that alleviate continuous cropping obstacles in the cultivation of Panax species.
{"title":"Current obstacles for continuous cropping of Panax species and mitigation strategies","authors":"Ergang Wang , Changbao Chen, Qiong Li","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.013","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.013","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Panax</em> species—represented here by <em>Panax ginseng</em> Meyer, <em>Panax quinquefolius</em> L., and <em>Panax notoginseng</em> (Burk.) F. H. Chen—are valued for their saponins and polysaccharides and thus have significant clinical and commercial value. Rising global demand has driven intensive, large-scale cultivation, but repeated monoculture has produced persistent continuous cropping obstacles that now threaten the sustainability of the industry. These obstacles are not attributable to a single factor. Rather, they arise from interacting processes including degradation of soil physical and chemical properties, accumulation of plant-derived toxins that inhibit growth (allelopathic autotoxicity), and shifts in the soil microbial community that impair soil health and plant resilience. Together, these changes lead to stunted growth, reduced yields, and increased disease incidence. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding continuous cropping obstacles in <em>Panax</em> species. It evaluates evidence for the primary causal factors, assesses current mitigation strategies, and highlights areas where findings are robust or still uncertain. By integrating soil science, plant physiology, and microbial ecology, the review identifies practical approaches already in use and emerging technologies with potential to improve outcomes. Finally, we identify critical knowledge gaps and outline priority directions for future research aimed at clarifying mechanisms and translating that knowledge into an effective management framework. The ultimate goal is to provide a theoretical basis to guide the development of scalable, evidence-based practices that alleviate continuous cropping obstacles in the cultivation of <em>Panax species.</em></div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100925"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365464","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-19DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100934
Hebin Pan, Panshen Xu, Kaitao Wang, Jialong Yang, Weilong Song, An Wang, Jiapeng Deng, Dingsheng Lin
Background
Ischemic necrosis remains a critical challenge in flap transplantation, often leading to postoperative complications and surgical failure. Ginsenoside Rg1, a bioactive component of Panax ginseng Meyer, has demonstrated protective effects against ischemia in various tissues. This study endeavors to explore whether Rg1 mitigates mitochondrial oxidative stress and apoptosis to enhance flap survival, and investigates the underlying mechanisms.
Materials and methods
Male rats’ McFarlane flap models were established and randomly divided into sham, control, low-dose Rg1, medium-dose Rg1, and high-dose Rg1 groups. On the seventh day postoperative, flap necrosis rate and blood perfusion were evaluated. Western blotting was used to detect mitochondrial stress proteins, apoptosis and inflammation-related molecules, and angiogenesis pathway activity. In vitro, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were used to simulate ischemia-reperfusion injury for analyzing oxidative stress, mitochondrial function and apoptosis rate.
Results
Rg1 treatment dose-dependently enhanced flap survival, attenuated neutrophil infiltration and promoted angiogenesis. At the cellular level, Rg1 promoted viability and migration capacity of HUVECs while diminishing the accumulation of ROS. Furthermore, Rg1 regulated mitochondrial dynamics by upregulating fusion protein Mfn2 and downregulating fission protein Drp1, thereby inhibiting apoptosis. Western blot analysis revealed that Rg1 bidirectionally modulated the JNK/ERK/p38 pathway, suppressing pro-apoptotic signals (p-JNK, p-p38) and activating pro-survival signals (p-ERK). Additionally, Rg1 promoted angiogenesis by upregulating VEGF, Ang-1, and PDGFR-β, and reduced inflammation by suppressing IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α.
Conclusion
Ginsenoside Rg1 regulates the JNK/ERK/p38 signaling pathway, mitigates mitochondrial oxidative stress and suppresses apoptosis, establishing a novel therapeutic target for flap necrosis prevention.
{"title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 promotes skin flap survival by alleviating mitochondrial oxidative stress and apoptosis via the JNK/ERK/p38 pathway","authors":"Hebin Pan, Panshen Xu, Kaitao Wang, Jialong Yang, Weilong Song, An Wang, Jiapeng Deng, Dingsheng Lin","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100934","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100934","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Ischemic necrosis remains a critical challenge in flap transplantation, often leading to postoperative complications and surgical failure. Ginsenoside Rg1, a bioactive component of <em>Panax ginseng</em> Meyer, has demonstrated protective effects against ischemia in various tissues. This study endeavors to explore whether Rg1 mitigates mitochondrial oxidative stress and apoptosis to enhance flap survival, and investigates the underlying mechanisms.</div></div><div><h3>Materials and methods</h3><div>Male rats’ McFarlane flap models were established and randomly divided into sham, control, low-dose Rg1, medium-dose Rg1, and high-dose Rg1 groups. On the seventh day postoperative, flap necrosis rate and blood perfusion were evaluated. Western blotting was used to detect mitochondrial stress proteins, apoptosis and inflammation-related molecules, and angiogenesis pathway activity. In vitro, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were used to simulate ischemia-reperfusion injury for analyzing oxidative stress, mitochondrial function and apoptosis rate.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Rg1 treatment dose-dependently enhanced flap survival, attenuated neutrophil infiltration and promoted angiogenesis. At the cellular level, Rg1 promoted viability and migration capacity of HUVECs while diminishing the accumulation of ROS. Furthermore, Rg1 regulated mitochondrial dynamics by upregulating fusion protein Mfn2 and downregulating fission protein Drp1, thereby inhibiting apoptosis. Western blot analysis revealed that Rg1 bidirectionally modulated the JNK/ERK/p38 pathway, suppressing pro-apoptotic signals (p-JNK, p-p38) and activating pro-survival signals (p-ERK). Additionally, Rg1 promoted angiogenesis by upregulating VEGF, Ang-1, and PDGFR-β, and reduced inflammation by suppressing IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Ginsenoside Rg1 regulates the JNK/ERK/p38 signaling pathway, mitigates mitochondrial oxidative stress and suppresses apoptosis, establishing a novel therapeutic target for flap necrosis prevention.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100934"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365416","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100933
Jeong Hun Cho , Seungjo Lee , Joon Soo Chun , Chan-Su Rha , Sehyun Kim , Hyung-Min Kim , Donghyun Kim , Min-Seuk Lee , Hyoung-June Kim , Eun Jin Lee
Background
Traditional black ginseng (BG) production requires resource-intensive multiple steaming-drying cycles. This study aimed to develop an efficient, sustainable method for producing novel black ginseng (hereafter referred to as Dark Ginseng, DG) with optimized rare ginsenoside contents with biological efficacy.
Methods
A sous vide-inspired enclosed system heating method was used, where sealed packaging retained water vapor to enable continuous moisture-mediated ginsenoside hydrolysis, fundamentally different from conventional open-system steam processing. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize the production parameters. DG underwent comprehensive morphological, colorimetric, and phytochemical characterizations. Biological activities were assessed by quantifying collagen gene expression in fibroblasts and inflammatory marker levels in keratinocytes.
Results
Optimal parameters (3-fold water ratio, 100 °C, 120 h duration) demonstrated excellent agreement with the regression model. DG exhibited physical features comparable to conventional BG, while achieving reduced processing time (42 %), lower carbon dioxide emissions (64 %), and cost reduction (81 %), and contained rare ginsenosides (ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1) with no detectable hazardous substances. The DG extract significantly upregulated collagen synthesis genes COL4A1 (1.55-fold) and COL7A1 (2.29-fold) expressions in fibroblasts and exhibited anti-inflammatory effects through dose-dependent reduction by 50 %–80 % of cytokine IL6, IL8, and COX2 expression levels in stimulated keratinocytes.
Conclusions
This innovative process developed in this study replaces the nine sequential steaming-drying cycles required for conventional BG production, with a single sequence involving sous vide-like heating, offering sustainability and economic advantages, while suggesting potential for applications in cosmetics and functional foods.
{"title":"A novel black ginseng processing method for optimizing rare ginsenosides with bioactivity and sustainability","authors":"Jeong Hun Cho , Seungjo Lee , Joon Soo Chun , Chan-Su Rha , Sehyun Kim , Hyung-Min Kim , Donghyun Kim , Min-Seuk Lee , Hyoung-June Kim , Eun Jin Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100933","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100933","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Traditional black ginseng (BG) production requires resource-intensive multiple steaming-drying cycles. This study aimed to develop an efficient, sustainable method for producing novel black ginseng (hereafter referred to as Dark Ginseng, DG) with optimized rare ginsenoside contents with biological efficacy.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A sous vide-inspired enclosed system heating method was used, where sealed packaging retained water vapor to enable continuous moisture-mediated ginsenoside hydrolysis, fundamentally different from conventional open-system steam processing. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize the production parameters. DG underwent comprehensive morphological, colorimetric, and phytochemical characterizations. Biological activities were assessed by quantifying collagen gene expression in fibroblasts and inflammatory marker levels in keratinocytes.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Optimal parameters (3-fold water ratio, 100 °C, 120 h duration) demonstrated excellent agreement with the regression model. DG exhibited physical features comparable to conventional BG, while achieving reduced processing time (42 %), lower carbon dioxide emissions (64 %), and cost reduction (81 %), and contained rare ginsenosides (ginsenosides Rg<sub>3</sub>, Rg<sub>5</sub>, and Rk<sub>1</sub>) with no detectable hazardous substances. The DG extract significantly upregulated collagen synthesis genes <em>COL4A1</em> (1.55-fold) and <em>COL7A1</em> (2.29-fold) expressions in fibroblasts and exhibited anti-inflammatory effects through dose-dependent reduction by 50 %–80 % of cytokine <em>IL6, IL8</em>, and <em>COX2</em> expression levels in stimulated keratinocytes.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>This innovative process developed in this study replaces the nine sequential steaming-drying cycles required for conventional BG production, with a single sequence involving sous vide-like heating, offering sustainability and economic advantages, while suggesting potential for applications in cosmetics and functional foods.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100933"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365450","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2026-01-05DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100972
Su Bin Han , Soyoon Baek , Eunbi Yu , Sae Woong Oh , Hyeyoun Kim , Seokhyeon Min , Gyeonghyeon Kim , Yeonsoo Kim , Koo Chul Kwon , Iseul Jo , Jae Youl Cho , In Ki Hong , Jongsung Lee
Background
Olfactory receptors perform diverse functions in many cell types and are ectopically expressed in human epidermis.
Purpose
This study aimed to examine the role of OR7A17 in keratinocyte biology, its signaling pathway and the potential of ginsenosides as its antagonist.
Methods
OR7A17 function was examined in stably OR7A17-overexpressing HaCaT cells using western blots, image analysis, flow cytometric and qPCR.
Results
We found that OR7A17 overexpression promoted keratinocyte proliferation through MAPK signaling pathway, accompanied by elevated cAMP and cytosolic Ca2+ levels, which activated AP-1 and CRE. Moreover, blockade experiments showed that CNG, TRPV1, and TRPA1 channels mediated these Ca2+ signals. OR7A17 also promoted the PI3K/AKT pathway, activating NF-κB and driving G1/S cell cycle progression via GSK-3β inhibition and P70S6K activation. Conversely, OR7A17 overexpression repressed differentiation, as evidenced by reduced expression of early and late differentiation markers. Molecular docking and functional assays confirmed that ginsenoside Rh3 bound OR7A17 and antagonized its signaling, thereby inhibiting proliferation and restoring differentiation.
Conclusion
In summary, OR7A17 promoted keratinocyte proliferation by activating PKA/MAPK, Ca2+/CREB, and PI3K-AKT-NF-κB pathways, while repressing differentiation. In addition, ginsenoside Rh3 functioned as an antagonist of OR7A17, counteracting these effects. These findings suggest OR7A17 as a therapeutic target for proliferation- and differentiation-related skin disorders such as atopic dermatitis, with ginsenoside Rh3 as a potential regulator for epidermal homeostasis.
{"title":"The ectopic olfactory receptor OR7A17 regulates the proliferation and differentiation of human epidermal keratinocytes, and ginsenoside Rh3 acts as its antagonist","authors":"Su Bin Han , Soyoon Baek , Eunbi Yu , Sae Woong Oh , Hyeyoun Kim , Seokhyeon Min , Gyeonghyeon Kim , Yeonsoo Kim , Koo Chul Kwon , Iseul Jo , Jae Youl Cho , In Ki Hong , Jongsung Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100972","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.100972","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Olfactory receptors perform diverse functions in many cell types and are ectopically expressed in human epidermis.</div></div><div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>This study aimed to examine the role of OR7A17 in keratinocyte biology, its signaling pathway and the potential of ginsenosides as its antagonist.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>OR7A17 function was examined in stably OR7A17-overexpressing HaCaT cells using western blots, image analysis, flow cytometric and qPCR.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>We found that OR7A17 overexpression promoted keratinocyte proliferation through MAPK signaling pathway, accompanied by elevated cAMP and cytosolic Ca<sup>2+</sup> levels, which activated AP-1 and CRE. Moreover, blockade experiments showed that CNG, TRPV1, and TRPA1 channels mediated these Ca<sup>2+</sup> signals. OR7A17 also promoted the PI3K/AKT pathway, activating NF-κB and driving G1/S cell cycle progression via GSK-3β inhibition and P70S6K activation. Conversely, OR7A17 overexpression repressed differentiation, as evidenced by reduced expression of early and late differentiation markers. Molecular docking and functional assays confirmed that ginsenoside Rh3 bound OR7A17 and antagonized its signaling, thereby inhibiting proliferation and restoring differentiation.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>In summary, OR7A17 promoted keratinocyte proliferation by activating PKA/MAPK, Ca<sup>2+</sup>/CREB, and PI3K-AKT-NF-κB pathways, while repressing differentiation. In addition, ginsenoside Rh3 functioned as an antagonist of OR7A17, counteracting these effects. These findings suggest OR7A17 as a therapeutic target for proliferation- and differentiation-related skin disorders such as atopic dermatitis, with ginsenoside Rh3 as a potential regulator for epidermal homeostasis.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100972"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365367","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-08DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.005
Guijun Tan , Li Zhang , Zihan Zhao , Xu Zhang , Na Wang , Jingrui Yan , Ke Tang , Yi Yang
Background
This study aimed to evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of Korean red ginseng through a randomized controlled trial and explore the potential targets and pathways for Korean red ginseng to exert clinical efficacy by combining network pharmacology and clinical trial results.
Methods
We included randomly allocated participants to a test group that received red ginseng or a placebo control group. Network pharmacology was used to analyze the targets of Korean red ginseng and the genes related to type II diabetes, with the core targets being inferred. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses were conducted to explore the potential mechanisms of action of red ginseng.
Results
Regarding safety, none of the participants showed adverse effects. The test group exhibited significant post-intervention reductions in fasting blood glucose (from 6.44 ± 1.17 to 6.19 ± 1.14 mmol/L), 2-h blood glucose (from 11.96 ± 4.40 to 10.48 ± 3.72 mmol/L), and HbA1c (from 6.27 ± 0.79 to 6.12 ± 0.81 %; all P < 0.01). Immune markers, including CD4/CD8, IgG, IgA, and IgM, remained within normal limits in both groups. Further hierarchical analysis revealed that red ginseng significantly increased IgA levels and natural killer cells in patients with type 2 diabetes with low immunity, with a significant between-group difference. Network pharmacology identified effective components of Korean red ginseng for treating type II diabetes, including ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside-Rg3, and Ginsenoside Rb2, with potential targets such as toll-like receptors 2 and 4, tumor necrosis factor, etc.
Conclusion
According to the Evaluation Method of Auxiliary Blood Glucose Lowering Function of health products (2012 Version), we can conclude that RG capsules can help reduce blood glucose levels in individuals with Type 2 diabetes and Impaired Glucose Regulation.
{"title":"Clinical randomized controlled trial and network pharmacological analysis of blood glucose regulation by Korean red ginseng in patients with type 2 diabetes and impaired glucose regulation","authors":"Guijun Tan , Li Zhang , Zihan Zhao , Xu Zhang , Na Wang , Jingrui Yan , Ke Tang , Yi Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.005","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.005","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div><strong>This study aimed</strong> to evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of Korean red ginseng through a randomized controlled trial and explore the potential targets and pathways for Korean red ginseng to exert clinical efficacy by combining network pharmacology and clinical trial results.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We included randomly allocated participants to a test group that received red ginseng or a placebo control group. Network pharmacology was used to analyze the targets of Korean red ginseng and the genes related to type II diabetes, with the core targets being inferred. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses were conducted to explore the potential mechanisms of action of red ginseng.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Regarding safety, none of the participants showed adverse effects. The test group exhibited significant post-intervention reductions in fasting blood glucose (from 6.44 ± 1.17 to 6.19 ± 1.14 mmol/L), 2-h blood glucose (from 11.96 ± 4.40 to 10.48 ± 3.72 mmol/L), and HbA1c (from 6.27 ± 0.79 to 6.12 ± 0.81 %; all <em>P</em> < 0.01). Immune markers, including CD4/CD8, IgG, IgA, and IgM, remained within normal limits in both groups. Further hierarchical analysis revealed that red ginseng significantly increased IgA levels and natural killer cells in patients with type 2 diabetes with low immunity, with a significant between-group difference. Network pharmacology identified effective components of Korean red ginseng for treating type II diabetes, including ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside-Rg3, and Ginsenoside Rb2, with potential targets such as toll-like receptors 2 and 4, tumor necrosis factor, etc.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>According to the Evaluation Method of Auxiliary Blood Glucose Lowering Function of health products (2012 Version), we can conclude that RG capsules can help reduce blood glucose levels in individuals with Type 2 diabetes and Impaired Glucose Regulation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100917"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365407","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-02DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.014
Yufei Huang , Bing Wang , Yu Jin , Mingling Qiu , Jingyun Liu , Liangyu Hao , Chenghong Zhang , Haiying Ma
Background
Continuous light exposure can accelerate immunosenescence-like state. The increase of TNF-α and IL-1β impairs clock gene functions and circadian rhythm disorder contributes to the path of biological aging.
Methods
This study evaluated the effects of an aqueous extract of black ginseng (BG) on clock gene regulation in aging mice accompanied by circadian rhythm disorders to clarify its antiaging mechanism in the skin. D-gal-induced the mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells were treated with Ginsenoside Rg3. In vivo, aging senescence was induced by subcutaneous injection of D-gal combined with a light environment. The treatment groups were injected intraperitoneally with BG extract. Polygala tenuifolia (PT) extract served as a positive control.
Results
We found that Rg3, one of the active ingredients of the BG extract, increased the antioxidant capacity and decreased the expression of β-galactosidase and the mRNA levels of p16, p21, TNF-α and IL-1β. Drug–disease–target network pharmacological analysis revealed that the TNF signaling pathway is involved in the anti-skin aging effects of both BG and PT. We verified that BG or PT reversed the changes in the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, clock and p-ERK1/2 in aged and circadian rhythm-disturbed mice.
Conclusions
The present study demonstrated that the extracts of BG and PT played similar roles in an anti-skin aging. The possible mechanism involves the inhibition of oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation, which can lead to change clock genes and drive epidermal differentiation of epidermal stem cells (ESCs) through the activation of ERK to cause ESCs depletion and skin aging.
{"title":"Anti-skin aging effects of black ginseng extracts through regulating inflammatory factors and the CLOCK–ERK pathway in mice","authors":"Yufei Huang , Bing Wang , Yu Jin , Mingling Qiu , Jingyun Liu , Liangyu Hao , Chenghong Zhang , Haiying Ma","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.014","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.11.014","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Continuous light exposure can accelerate immunosenescence-like state. The increase of TNF-α and IL-1β impairs clock gene functions and circadian rhythm disorder contributes to the path of biological aging.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>This study evaluated the effects of an aqueous extract of black ginseng (BG) on clock gene regulation in aging mice accompanied by circadian rhythm disorders to clarify its antiaging mechanism in the skin. D-gal-induced the mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells were treated with Ginsenoside Rg3. In vivo, aging senescence was induced by subcutaneous injection of D-gal combined with a light environment. The treatment groups were injected intraperitoneally with BG extract. <em>Polygala tenuifolia</em> (PT) extract served as a positive control.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>We found that Rg3, one of the active ingredients of the BG extract, increased the antioxidant capacity and decreased the expression of β-galactosidase and the mRNA levels of p16, p21, TNF-α and IL-1β. Drug–disease–target network pharmacological analysis revealed that the TNF signaling pathway is involved in the anti-skin aging effects of both BG and PT. We verified that BG or PT reversed the changes in the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, clock and p-ERK1/2 in aged and circadian rhythm-disturbed mice.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The present study demonstrated that the extracts of BG and PT played similar roles in an anti-skin aging. The possible mechanism involves the inhibition of oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation, which can lead to change clock genes and drive epidermal differentiation of epidermal stem cells (ESCs) through the activation of ERK to cause ESCs depletion and skin aging.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100926"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365417","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-04DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2025.12.002
Qi Lan , Xiao-Lin Li , Zi-Yan Zeng , Xin-Rui Yang , Xiao-Yu Lan , Shi-Yun Yang , Gang Luo , Qiu-Yu Liu , Meng-Nan Liu
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are recognized as a major global public health challenge whose prevention and management have long been a focus of scientific investigation. Panax ginseng Meyer (ginseng), as a herbal remedy with a long historical usage, is extensively utilized in the field of complementary and alternative medicine. This review was based on the Web of Science core collection, searching and screening for relevant studies on “ginseng” and “cardiovascular disease”. Subsequently, the target literature records were analyzed and visualized using CiteSpace, Scimago Graphica, Bibliometrix R software package, and Microsoft Excel. This review summarized the research trajectory of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of CVDs from 1998 to 2025, analyzed its development characteristics, research hotspots and emerging frontiers, in order to provide new methods for the application of herbal medicine and promote clinical translation and the integration of complementary and alternative medicine with modern medical practice, demonstrating the enormous potential of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of CVDs.
心血管疾病（cvd）是公认的重大全球公共卫生挑战，其预防和管理一直是科学研究的重点。人参作为一种历史悠久的草药，被广泛应用于补充和替代医学领域。本综述基于Web of Science核心馆藏，对“人参”与“心血管疾病”的相关研究进行检索和筛选。随后，使用CiteSpace、Scimago Graphica、Bibliometrix R软件包和Microsoft Excel对目标文献记录进行分析和可视化。本文综述了1998 - 2025年人参在心血管疾病防治中的研究轨迹，分析了其发展特点、研究热点和新兴前沿，旨在为草药应用提供新方法，促进临床转化和补充替代医学与现代医学实践的融合，展示人参在心血管疾病防治中的巨大潜力。
{"title":"Efficacy of ginseng in cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment: An analysis of research from 1998 to 2025 based on the database","authors":"Qi Lan , Xiao-Lin Li , Zi-Yan Zeng , Xin-Rui Yang , Xiao-Yu Lan , Shi-Yun Yang , Gang Luo , Qiu-Yu Liu , Meng-Nan Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.12.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jgr.2025.12.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are recognized as a major global public health challenge whose prevention and management have long been a focus of scientific investigation. <em>Panax ginseng</em> Meyer (ginseng), as a herbal remedy with a long historical usage, is extensively utilized in the field of complementary and alternative medicine. This review was based on the Web of Science core collection, searching and screening for relevant studies on “ginseng” and “cardiovascular disease”. Subsequently, the target literature records were analyzed and visualized using CiteSpace, Scimago Graphica, Bibliometrix R software package, and Microsoft Excel. This review summarized the research trajectory of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of CVDs from 1998 to 2025, analyzed its development characteristics, research hotspots and emerging frontiers, in order to provide new methods for the application of herbal medicine and promote clinical translation and the integration of complementary and alternative medicine with modern medical practice, demonstrating the enormous potential of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of CVDs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":16035,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ginseng Research","volume":"50 2","pages":"Article 100929"},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147365445","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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