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Emergence of a three-sample conditional discrimination as foundation for reasoning capabilities 作为推理能力基础的三样本条件判别的出现。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-20 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.877
Luis Antonio Pérez-González, Héctor Martínez, Marlon Palomino

We hypothesized that a three-sample conditional discrimination can emerge as a result of learning conditional discriminations with relational stimuli. After learning three first-order conditional discriminations AB, PQ, and CD, we taught a second-order conditional discrimination XAB in which X1 indicated selection of related stimuli (e.g., A1 and B1) and X2 of unrelated stimuli (e.g., A1 and B2). Then, we probed the emergence of conditional discriminations PQX and XCD in which the X stimuli were comparisons and contextual stimuli, respectively. Finally, a conditional discrimination was probed with stimuli P, Q, and C as samples and D1 and D2 as comparisons. When the P and Q stimuli were related (and related to X1 in PQX), all participants selected the D stimulus that was related to the C stimulus (D1 when C1 was present and D2 when C2 was present); when the P and Q stimuli were unrelated (and related to X2 in PQX), they selected the D stimulus unrelated to the C stimulus (D2 when C1 and D1 when C2), which demonstrated emergence based on the relations established among all stimuli. In Experiment 2, the teaching of XAB was omitted and only one in six participants demonstrated emergence, which indicated that relational stimuli X1 and X2 played an important role in emergence. Thus, a new type of emergence that mimics analogical reasoning was demonstrated. The obtained outcome suggests that this procedure provides a learning foundation for acquiring reasoning capabilities.

我们假设,三样本条件判别可以作为学习关系刺激的条件判别的结果而出现。在学习了三个一阶条件判别AB、PQ和CD后,我们教授了一个二阶条件判别XAB,其中X1表示选择相关刺激(例如A1和B1),X2表示选择不相关刺激(如A1和B2)。然后,我们探讨了条件判别PQX和XCD的出现,其中X刺激分别是比较和上下文刺激。最后,以刺激P、Q和C为样本,以D1和D2为比较,探讨了条件判别。当P和Q刺激相关(并且与PQX中的X1相关)时,所有参与者都选择了与C刺激相关的D刺激(当C1存在时为D1,当C2存在时为D2);当P和Q刺激不相关时(与PQX中的X2相关),他们选择了与C刺激不相关的D刺激(C1时为D2,C2时为D1),这表明基于所有刺激之间建立的关系出现了。在实验2中,省略了XAB的教学,只有六分之一的参与者表现出涌现,这表明关系刺激X1和X2在涌现中起着重要作用。因此,一种模仿类比推理的新型涌现被证明了。所获得的结果表明,该过程为获得推理能力提供了学习基础。
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引用次数: 0
Resurgence of goal-directed actions and habits 目标行动和习惯的恢复。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-14 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.884
Shun Fujimaki, Ting Hu, Yutaka Kosaki

This study investigated how goal-directed and habitual behaviors recover after extinction within the context of the resurgence effect, a form of relapse induced by the removal or worsening of alternative reinforcement. Rats were trained to press a target lever with one reinforcer (O1) for either minimal (4) or extended (16) sessions. An extinction test after the completion of O1 devaluation confirmed that minimal and extended training formed goal-directed and habitual behaviors, respectively. Then, pressing an alternative lever was reinforced with a second reinforcer (O2) while the target response was placed on extinction. When O2 was discontinued, the minimally trained target response resurged with goal-directed status as in the extinction test. However, the extinguished habitual behavior in the extensively trained rats did not recover as a habit but instead with goal-directed status, possibly due to the context specificity of habits or the introduction of a new response–reinforcer contingency. The critical finding that reinforcer devaluation consistently led to less resurgence regardless of the amount of acquisition training provides a clinical implication that coupling differential-reinforcement-of-alternative-behavior (DRA) treatments with the devaluation of the associated reinforcer of problematic behavior could effectively diminish its recurrence.

本研究调查了目标定向行为和习惯行为在消退后如何在复发效应的背景下恢复,复发效应是一种由替代性强化物的去除或恶化而诱发的复发形式。研究人员训练大鼠用一个强化物(O1)按下目标杠杆,训练时间为最短(4 次)或最长(16 次)。O1 贬值完成后的消退测试证实,最少训练和延长训练分别形成了目标定向行为和习惯行为。然后,用第二个强化物(O2)来强化按下另一个杠杆的行为,同时对目标反应进行消隐。当停止使用 O2 时,最小化训练后的目标反应又会以目标定向的状态出现,就像在消隐试验中一样。然而,在广泛训练的大鼠中,被熄灭的习惯性行为并没有恢复为习惯,而是恢复为目标定向状态,这可能是由于习惯的情境特异性或引入了新的反应-强化物或然性。重要的发现是,无论习得训练的量有多大,强化物的贬值都会导致较少的复发,这一发现提供了一种临床启示,即将差异强化替代行为(DRA)治疗与问题行为相关强化物的贬值结合起来,可以有效减少问题行为的复发。
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引用次数: 0
Theory of reinforcement schedules 钢筋计划理论。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-14 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.880
Peter R. Killeen

The three principles of reinforcement are (1) events such as incentives and reinforcers increase the activity of an organism; (2) that activity is bounded by competition from other responses; and (3) animals approach incentives and their signs, guided by their temporal and physical conditions, together called the “contingencies of reinforcement.” Mathematical models of each of these principles comprised mathematical principles of reinforcement (MPR; Killeen, 1994). Over the ensuing decades, MPR was extended to new experimental contexts. This article reviews the basic theory and its extensions to satiation, warm-up, extinction, sign tracking, pausing, and sequential control in progressive-ratio and multiple schedules. In the latter cases, a single equation balancing target and competing responses governs behavioral contrast and behavioral momentum. Momentum is intrinsic in the fundamental equations, as behavior unspools more slowly from highly aroused responses conditioned by higher rates of incitement than it does from responses from leaner contexts. Habits are responses that have accrued substantial behavioral momentum. Operant responses, being predictors of reinforcement, are approached by making them: The sight and feel of a paw on a lever is approached by placing paw on lever, as attempted for any sign of reinforcement. Behavior in concurrent schedules is governed by approach to momentarily richer patches (melioration). Applications of MPR in behavioral pharmacology and delay discounting are noted.

强化的三个原则是:(1)激励和强化等事件增加了生物体的活性;(2) 该活动受到来自其他反应的竞争的限制;和(3)动物在时间和身体条件的指导下接近激励和它们的迹象,统称为“强化的偶然性”。这些原则中的每一个的数学模型都包括强化的数学原则(MPR;Killeen,1994)。在随后的几十年里,MPR被扩展到新的实验环境中。本文综述了在渐进比和多个时间表中,饱腹、热身、消光、符号跟踪、暂停和顺序控制的基本理论及其扩展。在后一种情况下,平衡目标和竞争反应的单一方程支配行为对比和行为动量。动量是基本方程中固有的,因为行为从高度激发的反应中解脱出来的速度比从更精简的环境中解脱出来要慢。习惯是积累了大量行为动力的反应。作为强化的预测因素,操作反应是通过制造它们来接近的:将爪子放在杠杆上可以接近爪子在杠杆上的视觉和感觉,就像试图寻找任何强化迹象一样。并发调度中的行为由暂时更丰富的补丁(改进)的方法控制。MPR在行为药理学和延迟折扣中的应用值得注意。
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引用次数: 0
Transfer of functions based on equivalence class formation using musical stimuli 基于使用音乐刺激形成等价类的函数转移。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-14 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.881
Thiago H. S. Martins, Raone M. Rodrigues, Felipe C. O. Araújo, Átila M. Cedro, Renato Bortoloti, André A. B. Varella, Edson M. Huziwara

Empirical evidence has supported that musical excerpts written in major and minor modes are responsible for evoking happiness and sadness, respectively. In this study, we evaluated whether the emotional content evoked by musical stimuli would transfer to abstract figures when they became members of the same equivalence class. Participants assigned to the experimental group were submitted to a training procedure to form equivalence classes comprising musical excerpts (A) and meaningless abstract figures (B, C, and D). Afterward, transfer of function was evaluated using a semantic differential. Participants in the control group showed positive semantic differential scores for major mode musical excerpts, negative scores for minor mode musical excerpts, and neutral scores for the B, C, and D stimuli. Participants in the experimental groups showed positive semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the major modes and negative semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the minor modes. These results indicate transfer of function of emotional content present in musical stimuli through equivalence class formation. These findings could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of using emotional stimuli in equivalence class formation experiments and in transfer of function itself.

经验证据表明,以主要模式和次要模式创作的音乐节选分别是唤起快乐和悲伤的原因。在这项研究中,我们评估了当音乐刺激引发的情感内容成为同一等价类的成员时,它们是否会转移到抽象人物身上。被分配到实验组的参与者接受了一个训练程序,以形成由音乐节选(a)和无意义抽象图形(B、C和D)组成的等价课程。然后,使用语义微分来评估函数的传递。对照组的参与者在主模式音乐节选的语义差异得分为正,在副模式音乐节选中得分为负,在B、C和D刺激中得分为中性。实验组的参与者在相当于主要模式的视觉刺激中表现出积极的语义差异得分,在相当于次要模式的视觉激励中表现出消极的语义差异分数。这些结果表明,音乐刺激中存在的情感内容的功能通过等价类的形成而转移。这些发现可以更全面地理解在等价类形成实验和函数传递本身中使用情绪刺激的影响。
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引用次数: 0
Real, potentially real, and hypothetical monetary rewards in probability discounting 概率贴现中的真实、潜在真实和假设货币奖励。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-11 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.882
Hiroto Okouchi

Although hypothetical rewards have been used almost exclusively in human discounting studies, investigations of their validity are limited. The present experiment compared the discounting of monetary reward value by probability across conditions in which the rewards were real, potentially real, and hypothetical. Twenty-four undergraduates choose between an uncertain large reward and a certain small reward 60 times (trials). In the real and hypothetical reward conditions, the participants made choices with real and hypothetical money, respectively, in every trial. In the potentially real condition, they did so with real money in randomly selected three of the 60 trials and with hypothetical money in the remainder. The log10-transformed h values of a hyperbolic probability-discount function and the values of the area under the curve with an ordinal transformation of odds against were higher and lower, respectively, in the potentially real and in the hypothetical reward conditions than in the real reward condition, demonstrating that the probability discounting of hypothetical monetary rewards was larger than that of real rewards. These results suggest that future studies are required to identify why the hypothetical reward procedure overestimates the discounting rates of real rewards.

尽管假设奖励几乎只用于人类折扣研究,但对其有效性的调查有限。本实验比较了在奖励是真实的、潜在真实的和假设的条件下,货币奖励价值的概率贴现。24名本科生在不确定的大额奖励和特定的小额奖励之间进行60次选择(试验)。在真实和假设的奖励条件下,参与者在每次试验中分别用真实和假设资金进行选择。在潜在的真实情况下,他们在60项试验中随机选择了三项,用真实的钱进行了试验,其余的试验用假设的钱进行。在潜在真实和假设奖励条件下,双曲概率折扣函数的log10变换的h值和具有几率顺序变换的曲线下面积的值分别高于和低于真实奖励条件,表明假设货币奖励的概率折现大于实际奖励的概率贴现。这些结果表明,未来的研究需要确定为什么假设的奖励程序高估了实际奖励的贴现率。
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引用次数: 0
Reduced access to reinforcement drives delay discounting during experienced delays 在经历延误的情况下,获得增援的机会减少会导致延误折扣。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-11 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.883
Anne C. Macaskill, Kendra Thompson-Davies, Maree J. Hunt

Rewards lose value as a function of delay. Previous studies suggest that delays have a bigger effect on reward value when people must wait during the delay. However, whether delays involve waiting or postponing has often been confounded with whether choices are about hypothetical or real rewards. The current study characterized the effects of waiting and postponing in hypothetical and experiential choice contexts separately. In Experiment 1 we observed steeper delay discounting for waiting than for postponing in choices about both hypothetical money and about experienced computer game points. Two factors potentially contributing to steeper discounting in choices about waiting are reduced access to other rewards and direct costs of waiting. In Experiment 2, we adapted the experiential delay-discounting task to manipulate each factor separately. Reduced access to other reinforcers had a bigger effect on delay discounting than direct costs of waiting. These results underscore the importance of considering the unique influence of waiting and associated opportunity costs in both basic delay-discounting research and in applied contexts.

奖励会因延迟而失去价值。先前的研究表明,当人们必须在延迟期间等待时,延迟对奖励价值的影响更大。然而,延迟是包括等待还是推迟,往往与选择是假设的还是真正的回报混淆。目前的研究分别描述了在假设和经验选择环境中等待和推迟的影响。在实验1中,我们观察到在关于假设的金钱和经验丰富的计算机游戏积分的选择中,等待的延迟折扣比推迟的延迟折扣更大。可能导致等待选择折扣更大的两个因素是获得其他奖励的机会减少和等待的直接成本。在实验2中,我们采用经验延迟折扣任务来分别操纵每个因素。与等待的直接成本相比,获得其他增援的机会减少对延迟折扣的影响更大。这些结果强调了在基本延迟折扣研究和应用环境中考虑等待和相关机会成本的独特影响的重要性。
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引用次数: 0
Translational evaluation of on/off alternative reinforcement cycling 开启/关闭替代钢筋循环的转化评估。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-09-07 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.879
Sean W. Smith, Brian D. Greer

Cycling between the availability and unavailability of reinforcement for alternative responding has successfully reduced resurgence in basic laboratory evaluations, but this approach represents a marked departure from current standards of care when treating problem behavior, warranting careful translation before its use clinically. Therefore, with extinction arranged for target responding across groups in Phase 2, we evaluated the effects of cycling between the availability and unavailability of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) using a computer-based task with adult humans recruited through Amazon MTurk. Two control groups experienced constant DRA in Phase 2, with one group experiencing a dense DRA schedule and another group experiencing a lean DRA schedule. The cycling DRA group tended to show greater reductions in target responding and improved discrimination in Phase 2 and less target responding across Phases 2 and 3 than the lean DRA and dense DRA groups. These preliminary findings suggest that on/off DRA cycling procedures may produce more desirable treatment outcomes than constant DRA without producing negative side effects; however, further research is needed to confirm these possibilities.

替代反应强化的可用性和不可用性之间的循环成功地减少了基本实验室评估的死灰复燃,但这种方法在治疗问题行为时明显偏离了当前的护理标准,需要在临床使用前仔细翻译。因此,在第二阶段,我们对通过亚马逊MTurk招募的成年人类进行了基于计算机的任务,评估了不同强化替代行为(DRA)的可用性和不可用性之间的循环效应。两个对照组在第2阶段经历了恒定的DRA,其中一组经历了密集的DRA时间表,另一组则经历了贫DRA时间表。与贫DRA和密集DRA组相比,循环DRA组倾向于在第2阶段表现出更大的目标响应减少和更好的辨别能力,而在第2和第3阶段表现出更少的目标响应。这些初步发现表明,开启/关闭DRA循环程序可能比恒定DRA产生更理想的治疗结果,而不会产生负面副作用;然而,还需要进一步的研究来证实这些可能性。
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引用次数: 1
Divided stimulus control depends on differential and nondifferential reinforcement: Testing a quantitative model 分裂刺激控制依赖于微分和非微分强化:测试定量模型。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-08-15 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.876
Stephanie Gomes-Ng, Sarah Cowie, Douglas Elliffe

We investigated the effects of differential and nondifferential reinforcers on divided control by compound-stimulus dimensions. Six pigeons responded in a delayed matching-to-sample procedure in which a blue or yellow sample stimulus flashed on/off at a fast or slow rate, and subjects reported its color or alternation frequency. The dimension to report was unsignaled (Phase 1) or signaled (Phase 2). Correct responses were reinforced with a probability of .70, and the probability of reinforcers for errors varied across conditions. Comparison choice depended on reinforcer ratios for correct and incorrect responding; as the frequency of error reinforcers according to a dimension increased, control (measured by log d) by that dimension decreased and control by the other dimension increased. Davison and Nevin's (1999) model described data when the dimension to report was unsignaled, whereas model fits were poorer when it was signaled, perhaps due to carryover between conditions. We are the first to test this quantitative model of divided control with reinforcers for errors and when the dimension to report is signaled; hence, further research is needed to establish the model's generality. We question whether divided stimulus control is dimensional and suggest it may instead reflect joint control by compound stimuli and reinforcer ratios.

我们通过复合刺激维度研究了差异和非差异增强剂对分割控制的影响。六只鸽子在延迟匹配样本程序中做出反应,其中蓝色或黄色样本刺激以快或慢的速度闪烁,受试者报告其颜色或交替频率。要报告的维度没有信号(阶段1)或有信号(阶段2)。正确的回答被强化的概率为0.70,而强化错误的概率因条件而异。比较选择取决于正确和不正确反应的强化比率;随着一个维度的误差增强频率的增加,该维度的控制(用logd测量)减少,而另一维度的控制增加。Davison和Nevin(1999)的模型描述了当要报告的维度没有信号时的数据,而当有信号时,模型拟合较差,这可能是由于条件之间的结转。我们是第一个测试这种带有强化物的分割控制的定量模型的错误,以及何时发出报告维度的信号;因此,需要进一步的研究来建立该模型的通用性。我们质疑分刺激控制是否是维度的,并认为它可能反映了复合刺激和强化比率的联合控制。
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引用次数: 0
Resistance to change, of behavior and of theory 抗拒改变,抗拒行为和理论。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-08-01 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.875
Andrew R. Craig

The persistence of operant behavior when disrupted tends to be positively related to how often reinforcers were delivered in the past. Behavioral momentum theory describes this finding as the outcome of Pavlovian processes. That is, the relation between discriminative stimuli and reinforcers that were delivered in their presence strengthens behavior, thereby making it more likely to persist. If only the story were that simple. A growing number of findings challenge the basic tenets of behavioral momentum theory. Some even call into question whether Pavlovian relations contribute to persistence in the first place. In this paper, I will review behavioral momentum theory and some of the data that have been problematic for the theory. I will argue that despite these very real challenges, the theory provides important utility not only to basic analyses of response persistence but also to clinical interventions directed at long-term reductions in problem behavior. It, for example, has set the stage for the development of alternative conceptual analyses of resistance to change, two of which will be highlighted for readers. Moreover, behavioral momentum theory may tell us something important about the reasons it continues to have an influence on the field, despite the challenging data that deter it.

操作行为在被破坏时的持续性往往与过去强化物的使用频率呈正相关。行为动量理论将这一发现描述为巴甫洛夫过程的结果。也就是说,歧视性刺激和在它们存在的情况下提供的强化物之间的关系加强了行为,从而使其更有可能持续下去。要是故事这么简单就好了。越来越多的发现挑战了行为动量理论的基本原理。一些人甚至质疑巴甫洛夫关系是否有助于持久存在。在这篇论文中,我将回顾行为动量理论和一些对该理论有问题的数据。我认为,尽管存在这些非常现实的挑战,但该理论不仅对反应持续性的基本分析,而且对旨在长期减少问题行为的临床干预措施都具有重要的实用性。例如,它为发展对变革阻力的替代概念分析奠定了基础,其中两项将向读者重点介绍。此外,行为动量理论可能会告诉我们一些重要的信息,说明它继续对该领域产生影响的原因,尽管有具有挑战性的数据阻止了它。
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引用次数: 0
Expanding a laboratory model for evaluating relapse of caregiver nonadherence 扩展实验室模型以评估护理人员不依从性复发。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-07-18 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.873
Catherine L. Williams, Kyleigh L. Montague, Alec M. Bernstein, Nathan A. Call, Sarah K. Slocum

Caregiver adherence to treatment plans is likely maintained by negative reinforcement and can contact extinction when child responding relapses. When caregiver adherence contacts extinction, caregiver nonadherence, such as reinforcing their child's challenging behavior, relapses, threatening treatment efficacy. Previous laboratory models demonstrating the relapse of caregiver nonadherence only evaluated treatment for behavior maintained by social-positive reinforcement, not that maintained by social-negative reinforcement. These models only measured caregiver nonadherence as discrete events, which cannot capture the magnitude of each error. The present study was an evaluation of the relapse of caregiver nonadherence during simulated treatments for escape-maintained challenging behavior. First, caregivers placed demands in a home-like setting and a research confederate responded to these demands in a manner mimicking clinical clients. Next, caregivers were taught to implement treatment in a clinical setting and the confederate's behavior gradually improved. Last, caregivers returned to the home-like setting and confederate challenging behavior relapsed. Nonadherence relapsed for all caregivers, demonstrating the need for additional research on methods for mitigating caregiver relapse during treatment of children's challenging behavior and the usefulness of the proposed measurement system for future research.

护理人员对治疗计划的坚持可能会通过负强化来维持,并且当儿童反应复发时,可能会导致死亡。当照顾者的依从性达到灭绝时,照顾者的不依从性,如强化孩子的挑战性行为、复发、威胁治疗效果。先前的实验室模型证明了照顾者不依从性的复发,只评估了由社会正强化维持的行为的治疗,而不是由社会负强化维持的治疗。这些模型仅将护理人员的不依从性作为离散事件进行测量,无法捕捉每个错误的大小。本研究评估了在对逃避维持的挑战行为进行模拟治疗期间,护理人员不依从性的复发情况。首先,护理人员在类似家庭的环境中提出需求,研究联合会以模仿临床客户的方式回应这些需求。接下来,护理人员被教导在临床环境中实施治疗,联盟成员的行为逐渐改善。最后,护理人员回到了家里,联盟的挑战行为再次出现。所有照顾者的不依从性复发,这表明需要对在治疗儿童挑战性行为期间减轻照顾者复发的方法进行额外研究,以及所提出的测量系统对未来研究的有用性。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior
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