The results of this review study show that there is no commercial technology yet available to selectively remove specific ions from seawater in one step and optimally meet the desired water-chemistry requirements of smart waterflooding. As a result, different conceptual process configurations involving selected combinations of chemical precipitation, conventional/emerging desalination, and produced-water-treatment technologies are proposed. These configurations represent both approximate and improved solutions to incorporate specific key ions into the smart water selectively, besides presenting the key opportunities to treat produced-water/ membrane reject water and provide ZLD capabilities in smartwaterflooding applications. The developed configurations can provide an attractive solution to capitalize on existing huge producedwater resources available in carbonate reservoirs to generate smart water and minimize wastewater disposal during fieldwide implementation of smart waterflood.
{"title":"A Critical Review of Alternative Desalination Technologies for Smart Waterflooding","authors":"S. Ayirala, A. Yousef","doi":"10.2118/179564-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/179564-PA","url":null,"abstract":"The results of this review study show that there is no commercial technology yet available to selectively remove specific ions from seawater in one step and optimally meet the desired water-chemistry requirements of smart waterflooding. As a result, different conceptual process configurations involving selected combinations of chemical precipitation, conventional/emerging desalination, and produced-water-treatment technologies are proposed. These configurations represent both approximate and improved solutions to incorporate specific key ions into the smart water selectively, besides presenting the key opportunities to treat produced-water/ membrane reject water and provide ZLD capabilities in smartwaterflooding applications. The developed configurations can provide an attractive solution to capitalize on existing huge producedwater resources available in carbonate reservoirs to generate smart water and minimize wastewater disposal during fieldwide implementation of smart waterflood.","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"5 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88908896","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
was developed to predict the splitting phenomena under these regimes. Shoham extended his flow-splitting work to a horizontal reduced tee with a smaller-diameter branch arm (Shoham et al. 1989). Hong (1978) studied two-phase-flow splitting for a branching tee, considering the effect of side-arm angle and flow regimes on gas and liquid splitting. Hong and Griston (1995) studied flow splitting of an air/water system and concluded that, as the air split ratio increased to greater than 2:1, the experimental data points deviated from a 50:50 split. Hong and Griston (1995) also studied the effects of some devices on flow splitting. They recommended that nozzles be inserted directly downstream of an impacting tee to increase the chance of equal splitting. Azzopardi et al. (1987) considered the effects of annular flow for splitting at the tee junction. Azzopardi et al. (1988) investigated the effect of churn flow in the tee junctions. The experimental results for churn flow were the same as those for annular flow; therefore, they concluded that the inletgasand liquid-flow rates do not affect flow splitting. Peake (1992) concluded theoretically that uneven two-phase-flow splitting occurs as a result of unequal vapor-flow splitting. Tshuva et al. (1999) studied two-phase-flow splitting in horizontal and inclined parallel pipes. Taitel et al. (2003) studied the splitting of gas and liquid for four parallel pipes with a common inlet and outlet manifold capable of inclining from 0 to 15°. For the horizontal case, they observed identical splitting for each looped pipe, while for the other inclination angles, they observed a stagnant flow in at least one pipe. Pustylnik et al. (2006) investigated flow splitting in the lines on the basis of stability analysis, and proposed a model that was able to predict the number of pipes filled with stagnant liquid. One of the more-recent investigations on flow splitting was conducted by Alvarez et al. (2010). Their study investigated two-phase-flow splitting for looped lines such as parallel and looped configurations, and they developed a mechanistic model capable of predicting split ratio and pressure drop across each looped line on the basis of equal gas/liquid ratio in each branch. The purpose of our study is to discover the manner in which two phases of gas and liquid are split on the basis of the minimum pressure drop.
是用来预测这些制度下的分裂现象的。Shoham将他的分流工作扩展到具有较小直径分支臂的水平缩小三通(Shoham et al. 1989)。Hong(1978)研究了分支三通的两相流分裂，考虑了侧臂角和流动形式对气液分裂的影响。Hong和Griston(1995)研究了空气/水系统的流动分裂，并得出结论，当空气分裂比大于2:1时，实验数据点偏离了50:50的分裂。Hong和Griston(1995)也研究了一些装置对流动分裂的影响。他们建议将喷嘴直接插入冲击三通的下游，以增加均匀劈裂的机会。Azzopardi等人(1987)考虑了环流对三通处劈裂的影响。Azzopardi等人(1988)研究了三通管内搅拌流的影响。搅拌流的实验结果与环空流的实验结果一致;因此，他们得出结论，进口气体和液体流速不影响流动分裂。Peake(1992)从理论上得出结论，两相流分裂不均匀是气流分裂不均匀的结果。Tshuva等(1999)研究了两相流在水平和倾斜平行管道中的分裂。Taitel等人(2003)研究了四根平行管道的气液分离，该管道有一个共同的进出口歧管，可以从0°到15°倾斜。在水平的情况下，他们观察到每个环形管道都有相同的分裂，而在其他倾斜角度下，他们观察到至少一个管道中存在停滞流动。pustynik et al.(2006)在稳定性分析的基础上研究了管道中的流动分裂，并提出了一个能够预测充满滞流液体管道数量的模型。Alvarez等人(2010)进行了一项关于流动分裂的最新研究。他们的研究调查了两相流在环形管线上的分裂，例如平行和环形配置，并且他们开发了一个机制模型，能够在每个分支的气液比相等的基础上预测每个环形管线上的分裂比和压降。我们研究的目的是发现在最小压降的基础上分气液两相的方式。
{"title":"Pressure-Minimization Method for Prediction of Two-Phase-Flow Splitting","authors":"Ramin Dabirian, L. Thompson, R. Mohan, O. Shoham","doi":"10.2118/166197-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/166197-PA","url":null,"abstract":"was developed to predict the splitting phenomena under these regimes. Shoham extended his flow-splitting work to a horizontal reduced tee with a smaller-diameter branch arm (Shoham et al. 1989). Hong (1978) studied two-phase-flow splitting for a branching tee, considering the effect of side-arm angle and flow regimes on gas and liquid splitting. Hong and Griston (1995) studied flow splitting of an air/water system and concluded that, as the air split ratio increased to greater than 2:1, the experimental data points deviated from a 50:50 split. Hong and Griston (1995) also studied the effects of some devices on flow splitting. They recommended that nozzles be inserted directly downstream of an impacting tee to increase the chance of equal splitting. Azzopardi et al. (1987) considered the effects of annular flow for splitting at the tee junction. Azzopardi et al. (1988) investigated the effect of churn flow in the tee junctions. The experimental results for churn flow were the same as those for annular flow; therefore, they concluded that the inletgasand liquid-flow rates do not affect flow splitting. Peake (1992) concluded theoretically that uneven two-phase-flow splitting occurs as a result of unequal vapor-flow splitting. Tshuva et al. (1999) studied two-phase-flow splitting in horizontal and inclined parallel pipes. Taitel et al. (2003) studied the splitting of gas and liquid for four parallel pipes with a common inlet and outlet manifold capable of inclining from 0 to 15°. For the horizontal case, they observed identical splitting for each looped pipe, while for the other inclination angles, they observed a stagnant flow in at least one pipe. Pustylnik et al. (2006) investigated flow splitting in the lines on the basis of stability analysis, and proposed a model that was able to predict the number of pipes filled with stagnant liquid. One of the more-recent investigations on flow splitting was conducted by Alvarez et al. (2010). Their study investigated two-phase-flow splitting for looped lines such as parallel and looped configurations, and they developed a mechanistic model capable of predicting split ratio and pressure drop across each looped line on the basis of equal gas/liquid ratio in each branch. The purpose of our study is to discover the manner in which two phases of gas and liquid are split on the basis of the minimum pressure drop.","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"19 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85123756","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Xingru Wu, F. Babatola, Leiyong Jiang, B. Tolbert, Junrong Liu
sand and entrained solids are removed. This is followed by the separation of the gas and liquid components in the hydrocarbon stream at the existing temperature and pressure. The gas stream is then compressed, and the liquid stream is pumped to a processing facility onshore. If it is necessary, the liquid stream can be further separated into oil and water, and the gas can be reinjected into the reservoir or wellstream to recover more liquid oil. Chemical conditioning and active heating may be applied subsea before the processed fluids are pumped to the receiving facility (Abili et al. 2012). In this paper, we discuss the components of a subsea processing system with emphasis on pumps and separation equipment. Additionally, we will investigate offshore assets that currently apply subsea processing technologies to extract hydrocarbons to identify challenges facing the industry and opportunities for the future development of subsea fluid-conditioning technologies.
砂和夹带的固体被清除。接下来是在现有温度和压力下分离烃流中的气体和液体成分。然后气体流被压缩，液体流被泵送到岸上的处理设施。如有必要，可将液流进一步分离为油和水，将气回注到储层或井流中，以回收更多的液油。在处理后的流体被泵送到接收设施之前，可以在海底进行化学调理和主动加热(Abili et al. 2012)。在本文中，我们讨论了海底处理系统的组成，重点是泵和分离设备。此外，我们还将调查目前应用海底处理技术提取碳氢化合物的海上资产，以确定该行业面临的挑战以及海底流体调节技术未来发展的机遇。
{"title":"Applying Subsea Fluid-Processing Technologies for Deepwater Operations","authors":"Xingru Wu, F. Babatola, Leiyong Jiang, B. Tolbert, Junrong Liu","doi":"10.2118/181749-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/181749-PA","url":null,"abstract":"sand and entrained solids are removed. This is followed by the separation of the gas and liquid components in the hydrocarbon stream at the existing temperature and pressure. The gas stream is then compressed, and the liquid stream is pumped to a processing facility onshore. If it is necessary, the liquid stream can be further separated into oil and water, and the gas can be reinjected into the reservoir or wellstream to recover more liquid oil. Chemical conditioning and active heating may be applied subsea before the processed fluids are pumped to the receiving facility (Abili et al. 2012). In this paper, we discuss the components of a subsea processing system with emphasis on pumps and separation equipment. Additionally, we will investigate offshore assets that currently apply subsea processing technologies to extract hydrocarbons to identify challenges facing the industry and opportunities for the future development of subsea fluid-conditioning technologies.","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"25 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80863104","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
• Warming of air over the helipad, causing a sudden change in aircraft performance and possible loss of control • Direct exposure of workers to elevated air temperatures and dangerous concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) The level of risk for the preceding impacts depends on the type and power output of the engine. Gas-turbine engines are particularly prone to impingement problems because of their high exhaust temperatures (> 500°C) and large volumetric flow rates. The diameter of the exhaust uptake and its proximity to AOIs on the platform also play an important role in the probability and severity of impingement impacts. Thus, platform designs that have their gasturbine engines located centrally tend to put many areas of the platform at risk. Up to this point, the standard practice for reducing the risk associated with exhaust-plume impingement has been to locate the exhaust-duct exit as far away from sensitive areas as possible, or to extend the exhaust duct vertically upward until all the AOIs are below the duct exit (Fig. 1). Either of these two solutions, although effective, can result in long exhaust-duct runs with associated support structure, which adds weight to the platform. There is another solution to the plume-impingement problem, and that is the use of plume-cooling technology. Plume cooling has been used successfully on military ships for more than 40 years as a means of reducing the IR signature of the ship. A ship’s engine exhausts are the primary source of heat aboard, and thus any reduction in the temperature of visible metal or plume will reduce the detectibility of the ship in the IR band (Thompson et al. 1998). Another advantage of the use of plume cooling aboard a ship is that the temperature of mast-mounted sensors and communications equipment is lower in the event that the plume impinges upon them. An example of plume-cooling use on a military ship is the USS Makin Island (LHD-8), shown in Fig. 2. This ship class was originally powered by steam turbines, but the eighth ship was converted to gas-turbine propulsion, which greatly increased exhaust-gas temperatures, and thus required plume cooling to protect equipment on the ship’s two masts. At the time this paper was written, the authors were not aware of any plume coolers in service aboard existing offshore facilities. Currently, there are three new platform constructions that have plume coolers installed on their GTGs: Chevron Big Foot, ExxonMobil Hebron, and Statoil Gina Krog. An explanation for why plume coolers have not been used more frequently to solve impingement problems may be as simple as designers are not aware that the technology exists. Bringing the benefits of plume cooling to the attention of designers and operators is the primary purpose of this paper. Plume coolers are simple air/air ejectors that passively draw in cool, ambient air and mix it with the exhaust gases before they exit the device (Birk and Davis 1998). Fig. 3 illu
{"title":"Application of Plume-Cooling Technology To Solve a GTG Impingement Problem: A Case Study","authors":"J. Thompson, R. Crampton","doi":"10.2118/176309-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/176309-PA","url":null,"abstract":"• Warming of air over the helipad, causing a sudden change in aircraft performance and possible loss of control • Direct exposure of workers to elevated air temperatures and dangerous concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) The level of risk for the preceding impacts depends on the type and power output of the engine. Gas-turbine engines are particularly prone to impingement problems because of their high exhaust temperatures (> 500°C) and large volumetric flow rates. The diameter of the exhaust uptake and its proximity to AOIs on the platform also play an important role in the probability and severity of impingement impacts. Thus, platform designs that have their gasturbine engines located centrally tend to put many areas of the platform at risk. Up to this point, the standard practice for reducing the risk associated with exhaust-plume impingement has been to locate the exhaust-duct exit as far away from sensitive areas as possible, or to extend the exhaust duct vertically upward until all the AOIs are below the duct exit (Fig. 1). Either of these two solutions, although effective, can result in long exhaust-duct runs with associated support structure, which adds weight to the platform. There is another solution to the plume-impingement problem, and that is the use of plume-cooling technology. Plume cooling has been used successfully on military ships for more than 40 years as a means of reducing the IR signature of the ship. A ship’s engine exhausts are the primary source of heat aboard, and thus any reduction in the temperature of visible metal or plume will reduce the detectibility of the ship in the IR band (Thompson et al. 1998). Another advantage of the use of plume cooling aboard a ship is that the temperature of mast-mounted sensors and communications equipment is lower in the event that the plume impinges upon them. An example of plume-cooling use on a military ship is the USS Makin Island (LHD-8), shown in Fig. 2. This ship class was originally powered by steam turbines, but the eighth ship was converted to gas-turbine propulsion, which greatly increased exhaust-gas temperatures, and thus required plume cooling to protect equipment on the ship’s two masts. At the time this paper was written, the authors were not aware of any plume coolers in service aboard existing offshore facilities. Currently, there are three new platform constructions that have plume coolers installed on their GTGs: Chevron Big Foot, ExxonMobil Hebron, and Statoil Gina Krog. An explanation for why plume coolers have not been used more frequently to solve impingement problems may be as simple as designers are not aware that the technology exists. Bringing the benefits of plume cooling to the attention of designers and operators is the primary purpose of this paper. Plume coolers are simple air/air ejectors that passively draw in cool, ambient air and mix it with the exhaust gases before they exit the device (Birk and Davis 1998). Fig. 3 illu","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"45 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87553653","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Field and Logistics. The field is located offshore, approximately 200 km (108 nm) away from the nearest airport. Flight time is 1 hour and 5 minutes in still air by a twin-engine medium-sized helicopter with two blades that has a cruise speed of 100 knots. In the case of a four-blade twin-engine helicopter with a cruise speed of 125 knots, flight time is 52 minutes in still air. In the case of vessel transportation, it takes 1 day from the nearest port. The field has been developed with facilities consisting of a central complex with living quarters and surrounding unmanned platforms. All wells are tied-in platforms. Produced fluids are sent to the central complex through subsea flowlines. The central complex has both a helideck and large crane equipment, while the platforms have a helideck and simple human-powered hoist equipment only, without any crane equipment. Regular or ad hoc but prescheduled material transportation is performed by an offshore support vessel between the nearest port and the central complex, except urgent/emergency transportation. Once materials arrive at the complex, the method of transportation from the complex to the platform depends on the situation. If there are small materials that can be managed by human carrying or lifting with simple hoist equipment, then those materials are transported by supply boat. Heavier materials that cannot be lifted by human power are transported by helicopter. There are three types of platforms—one-leg, three-leg, and four-leg. The number of well slots and the size of the helideck increase with the number of legs on the platform.
{"title":"Safety for a Helicopter Load/Unload Operation on an Offshore Platform: Optimization From Several Viewpoints and the Psychological Aspects of the Marshaller","authors":"H. Yonebayashi, T. Collins","doi":"10.2118/174721-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/174721-PA","url":null,"abstract":"Field and Logistics. The field is located offshore, approximately 200 km (108 nm) away from the nearest airport. Flight time is 1 hour and 5 minutes in still air by a twin-engine medium-sized helicopter with two blades that has a cruise speed of 100 knots. In the case of a four-blade twin-engine helicopter with a cruise speed of 125 knots, flight time is 52 minutes in still air. In the case of vessel transportation, it takes 1 day from the nearest port. The field has been developed with facilities consisting of a central complex with living quarters and surrounding unmanned platforms. All wells are tied-in platforms. Produced fluids are sent to the central complex through subsea flowlines. The central complex has both a helideck and large crane equipment, while the platforms have a helideck and simple human-powered hoist equipment only, without any crane equipment. Regular or ad hoc but prescheduled material transportation is performed by an offshore support vessel between the nearest port and the central complex, except urgent/emergency transportation. Once materials arrive at the complex, the method of transportation from the complex to the platform depends on the situation. If there are small materials that can be managed by human carrying or lifting with simple hoist equipment, then those materials are transported by supply boat. Heavier materials that cannot be lifted by human power are transported by helicopter. There are three types of platforms—one-leg, three-leg, and four-leg. The number of well slots and the size of the helideck increase with the number of legs on the platform.","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"11 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73072308","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Savvy Separator Series: Introduction to CFD for Separator Design","authors":"A. Read","doi":"10.2118/0616-0002-OGF","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/0616-0002-OGF","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"242 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75033906","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The building, having approximate dimensions of 42-m length, 9.7-m width, and 5.2-m height, is constructed of reinforced concrete walls and roof, and is designed to be blast resistant. There are four rooms in the building: the control room, which houses the instrumentation panels; the uninterrupted-power-supply (UPS) room, which houses the UPS equipment; the battery room; and the HVAC room. The panels in the equipment room are mounted on raised access flooring (false floor), having space for cables running underneath. The plan view of the building is shown in Fig. 1. The panels in this building tripped frequently, leading to unplanned plant outages, and thereby posing a risk to overall plant operations and integrity. It was observed that tripping of panels was mainly caused by failure of the electronic cards in the panels. Multiple cards had to be replaced, depending on the failure, and the rate of replacement was once in an approximately 1-month interval. Visual inspection of the cards did not indicate any defect. Site survey observations indicated a mild odor of H2S prevalent in the vicinity of the building and in areas under the false floor, discoloration of soil surrounding the building, high groundwater levels, and damages to building cable-entry sealants. To investigate the root cause and provide remedial measures, a technical study involving several testing techniques was carried out and the root cause was identified. Remedial measures were proposed to overcome the issue and were implemented at site. This paper presents the tests carried out during the study, the test results, and the recommended remedial measures and their implementation and effectiveness, which enabled mitigation of the failure of the control panels.
该建筑的尺寸约为42米长，9.7米宽，5.2米高，由钢筋混凝土墙和屋顶构成，并设计为防爆。大楼里有四个房间:控制室，里面放着仪表面板;UPS (uninterrupted power supply)机房，存放UPS设备;蓄电池室;和暖通空调房间。机房内的面板安装在架空通道地板(假地板)上，下方有空间供电缆运行。建筑平面视图如图1所示。该建筑的面板经常跳闸，导致工厂计划外停机，从而对整个工厂的运营和完整性构成风险。据观察，面板跳闸主要是由面板中的电子卡故障引起的。根据故障情况，必须更换多张卡片，更换频率大约为1个月一次。对卡片的目视检查没有发现任何缺陷。现场调查结果显示，建筑物附近和假地板下区域普遍存在轻微的H2S气味，建筑物周围土壤变色，地下水位高，建筑物电缆入口密封剂损坏。为了调查根本原因并提供补救措施，进行了一项涉及几种测试技术的技术研究，并确定了根本原因。为了克服这个问题，我们提出了补救措施，并在现场实施。本文介绍了在研究期间进行的测试、测试结果、建议的补救措施及其实施和有效性，从而减轻了控制面板的故障。
{"title":"Underground Bacteria Generates H 2 S and Trips Control Panels","authors":"T. Subramanian, Khaled M. Adel, I. A. Awadhi","doi":"10.2118/177798-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/177798-PA","url":null,"abstract":"The building, having approximate dimensions of 42-m length, 9.7-m width, and 5.2-m height, is constructed of reinforced concrete walls and roof, and is designed to be blast resistant. There are four rooms in the building: the control room, which houses the instrumentation panels; the uninterrupted-power-supply (UPS) room, which houses the UPS equipment; the battery room; and the HVAC room. The panels in the equipment room are mounted on raised access flooring (false floor), having space for cables running underneath. The plan view of the building is shown in Fig. 1. The panels in this building tripped frequently, leading to unplanned plant outages, and thereby posing a risk to overall plant operations and integrity. It was observed that tripping of panels was mainly caused by failure of the electronic cards in the panels. Multiple cards had to be replaced, depending on the failure, and the rate of replacement was once in an approximately 1-month interval. Visual inspection of the cards did not indicate any defect. Site survey observations indicated a mild odor of H2S prevalent in the vicinity of the building and in areas under the false floor, discoloration of soil surrounding the building, high groundwater levels, and damages to building cable-entry sealants. To investigate the root cause and provide remedial measures, a technical study involving several testing techniques was carried out and the root cause was identified. Remedial measures were proposed to overcome the issue and were implemented at site. This paper presents the tests carried out during the study, the test results, and the recommended remedial measures and their implementation and effectiveness, which enabled mitigation of the failure of the control panels.","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"54 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85874857","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Statoil: Subsea Compression Systems To Extend Field Life","authors":"S. Whitfield","doi":"10.2118/0616-0001-OGF","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/0616-0001-OGF","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"339 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80739563","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
power generation, as capable of contributing up to 19% in CO2 reductions (IEA 2008, page 69). These are not withstanding the assessment performed by IEA (2012) with respect to “high potential CO2 emissions” found with global “carbon reserves,” and thereby outlining the deployment of CCS as the major technology required for sustaining the projected demand on fossils. “The assessment has attributed almost 63% to coal, 22% to oil and 15% to gas in CO2 emissions potential locked in these reserves.” The case of CO2 in natural gas represents a typical scenario for a number of oil and gas companies faced with the enormous challenge of reduced energy level of sales gas making it subquality or when disposal by flaring increases the source of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere. However, the amount of natural gas flared globally has been shown to contribute approximately 1.2% of the global CO2 emissions, which is given to be more than one-half of the certified emissions reductions under the Kyoto Protocol (ICF International 2006). There are several technologies and techniques now available for separation of CO2 (or acid gases) from gas mixture, either as flue gas from power plants or from natural gas. In addition to deployment of these technologies, the captured or separated CO2 must be disposed of in such a manner as to prevent it from seeping back into the atmosphere. This is required to achieve the aims of the CDM from the use of fossil fuels. Among the fossil fuels, natural gas has been shown to contain the least amount of CO2 emitted per tonnage of fuel burnt as compared with coal and oil. In addition to the CO2 emitted during combustion, natural gas on production also contains a certain amount of impurities, including CO2 gas. The maximum level of CO2 permitted in natural-gas fuel is typically less than 3%. Hence, all natural gas is treated to remove the solids and free liquids and to reduce water-vapor content to acceptable levels and, especially, to meet pipeline specifications. Hence, natural gas must be purified through the removal of CO2 and other acid gases and impurities (where present) because these impurities can form acids in the presence of water to corrode pipelines and other equipment. In addition, higher concentrations of CO2 in natural gas reduce the heating value or energy level, which is below pipeline specifications, necessitating its removal before distribution to the end consumer. Natural gas has been a main source in meeting the world’s energy demand, contributing an estimated 23.81% in 2010 to the world energy supply mix (Rufford et al. 2012, page 123). This contribution is projected to increase because natural gas is considered the cleaner fossil fuel compared with coal and oil. The deployment of appropriate CO2-capture technology in processing natural gas stands to improve its value as the cleaner fossil fuel. In this paper, a brief review of related acid-gas separation processes will be reviewed and recommendations will be presen
发电，能够贡献高达19%的二氧化碳减排(IEA 2008，第69页)。国际能源署(IEA)在2012年对全球“碳储量”中发现的“高潜在二氧化碳排放”进行了评估，并据此概述了CCS作为维持预计化石需求所需的主要技术的部署。“评估认为，这些储量的二氧化碳排放潜力中，煤炭占63%，石油占22%，天然气占15%。”天然气中二氧化碳的情况代表了许多石油和天然气公司面临的巨大挑战，即销售气体的能量水平降低，使其不合格，或者通过燃烧处理增加了二氧化碳排放到大气中的来源。然而，全球燃烧的天然气量已被证明约占全球二氧化碳排放量的1.2%，这是《京都议定书》(ICF International 2006)规定的认证减排量的一半以上。目前有几种技术和工艺可用于从混合气体中分离CO2(或酸性气体)，无论是作为发电厂的烟气还是从天然气中分离。除了部署这些技术外，捕获或分离的二氧化碳必须以防止其渗漏回大气的方式处理。这是实现清洁发展机制的目标所必需的，以减少使用化石燃料。在化石燃料中，与煤和石油相比，天然气燃烧每吨燃料所排放的二氧化碳最少。天然气在生产过程中，除了燃烧过程中排放的二氧化碳外，还含有一定量的杂质，包括二氧化碳气体。天然气燃料中允许的最大二氧化碳含量通常低于3%。因此，所有的天然气都要经过处理，以去除固体和游离液体，并将水蒸气含量降低到可接受的水平，特别是要满足管道规格。因此，天然气必须通过去除二氧化碳和其他酸性气体和杂质(如果存在)来净化，因为这些杂质在水中会形成酸，腐蚀管道和其他设备。此外，天然气中较高浓度的二氧化碳会降低热值或能量水平，这低于管道规格，因此需要在分配给最终用户之前将其移除。天然气一直是满足世界能源需求的主要来源，2010年对世界能源供应结构的贡献约为23.81% (ruford et al. 2012，第123页)。由于天然气被认为是比煤和石油更清洁的化石燃料，这一贡献预计还会增加。在天然气加工过程中采用适当的二氧化碳捕获技术将提高其作为清洁化石燃料的价值。本文将简要回顾相关的酸气分离工艺，并提出建议。将审查利用捕获的二氧化碳通过二氧化碳驱油提高采收率产生额外收入的经济机会，以及适当的运输和储存基础设施。
{"title":"CO 2 Capture and Usage: Harnessing the CO 2 Content in Natural Gas for Environmental and Economic Gains","authors":"Emmanuel O. Agiaye, Mohammed Othman","doi":"10.2118/178316-PA","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/178316-PA","url":null,"abstract":"power generation, as capable of contributing up to 19% in CO2 reductions (IEA 2008, page 69). These are not withstanding the assessment performed by IEA (2012) with respect to “high potential CO2 emissions” found with global “carbon reserves,” and thereby outlining the deployment of CCS as the major technology required for sustaining the projected demand on fossils. “The assessment has attributed almost 63% to coal, 22% to oil and 15% to gas in CO2 emissions potential locked in these reserves.” The case of CO2 in natural gas represents a typical scenario for a number of oil and gas companies faced with the enormous challenge of reduced energy level of sales gas making it subquality or when disposal by flaring increases the source of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere. However, the amount of natural gas flared globally has been shown to contribute approximately 1.2% of the global CO2 emissions, which is given to be more than one-half of the certified emissions reductions under the Kyoto Protocol (ICF International 2006). There are several technologies and techniques now available for separation of CO2 (or acid gases) from gas mixture, either as flue gas from power plants or from natural gas. In addition to deployment of these technologies, the captured or separated CO2 must be disposed of in such a manner as to prevent it from seeping back into the atmosphere. This is required to achieve the aims of the CDM from the use of fossil fuels. Among the fossil fuels, natural gas has been shown to contain the least amount of CO2 emitted per tonnage of fuel burnt as compared with coal and oil. In addition to the CO2 emitted during combustion, natural gas on production also contains a certain amount of impurities, including CO2 gas. The maximum level of CO2 permitted in natural-gas fuel is typically less than 3%. Hence, all natural gas is treated to remove the solids and free liquids and to reduce water-vapor content to acceptable levels and, especially, to meet pipeline specifications. Hence, natural gas must be purified through the removal of CO2 and other acid gases and impurities (where present) because these impurities can form acids in the presence of water to corrode pipelines and other equipment. In addition, higher concentrations of CO2 in natural gas reduce the heating value or energy level, which is below pipeline specifications, necessitating its removal before distribution to the end consumer. Natural gas has been a main source in meeting the world’s energy demand, contributing an estimated 23.81% in 2010 to the world energy supply mix (Rufford et al. 2012, page 123). This contribution is projected to increase because natural gas is considered the cleaner fossil fuel compared with coal and oil. The deployment of appropriate CO2-capture technology in processing natural gas stands to improve its value as the cleaner fossil fuel. In this paper, a brief review of related acid-gas separation processes will be reviewed and recommendations will be presen","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"12 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79028643","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Savvy Separator Series: Underperforming Gas Scrubbers—How To Fix Them and How To Avoid Them","authors":"Elizabeth Morillo, V. V. Asperen, G. BaarenSander","doi":"10.2118/0416-0016-OGF","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2118/0416-0016-OGF","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":19446,"journal":{"name":"Oil and gas facilities","volume":"22 1","pages":"16-23"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82117856","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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