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Analysis of the production cost structure and future prospects of Africa's critical minerals 分析非洲关键矿物的生产成本结构和未来前景

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105781

Mulundumina Shimaponda-Nawa , Glen T. Nwaila

The cost of producing critical raw materials (CRMs) in Africa is governed by economic, technological, and social factors. This study examines the historical cost structures of cobalt, copper, platinum, and zinc commodities that underpin industrial applications and account for a substantial proportion of Africa's mineral production. Based on the analysed historical data and the identified key components, a predictive framework is then developed to estimate future CRM production costs. A comprehensive analysis of production costs over the past 24 years reveals significant trends and implications for the sector. Mine cost curves demonstrate that African production costs for these elements remain competitive but exhibit substantial variability depending on the level of mechanisation, labour expenses, and energy costs. The study establishes that while labour costs declined between 2011 and 2016, mechanisation offset potential cost reductions. A notable rise in operating costs post-2019 corresponds with increased demand for cobalt and copper, particularly from the electric vehicle sector, and platinum for hydrogen-based technologies. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated price volatility and operational expenses. Comparisons with the Global North indicate that African mines operate at a cost advantage for cobalt and platinum due to higher ore grades, whereas copper and zinc producers face challenges associated with deeper mining and energy price fluctuations. Time series projections suggest that production costs will increase by 70 to 80% for platinum, 60 to 65% for cobalt and copper and upto 60% for zinc by 2055, primarily due to rising mine-site costs encompassing labour, energy, and technological investment. The findings have direct implications for policymakers and investors. While Africa remains a dominant supplier of CRMs, cost dynamics suggest that strategic interventions such as investment in energy efficiency, workforce development, and sustainable mining practices will be essential in ensuring long-term competitiveness. This study provides a foundation for data-driven decision-making in the evolving landscape of mineral production in Africa.

在非洲生产关键原材料（crm）的成本是由经济、技术和社会因素决定的。本研究考察了钴、铜、铂和锌商品的历史成本结构，这些商品是工业应用的基础，占非洲矿物生产的很大一部分。基于分析的历史数据和确定的关键组件，然后开发一个预测框架来估计未来的CRM生产成本。对过去24年生产成本的全面分析揭示了该行业的重大趋势和影响。矿山成本曲线表明，非洲这些要素的生产成本仍然具有竞争力，但根据机械化水平、劳动力费用和能源成本表现出很大的变化。研究表明，虽然劳动力成本在2011年至2016年期间有所下降，但机械化抵消了潜在的成本下降。2019年后运营成本的显著上升与对钴和铜的需求增加（尤其是电动汽车行业）以及氢基技术对铂的需求增加相对应。COVID-19大流行进一步加剧了价格波动和运营费用。与全球北方的比较表明，由于矿石品位较高，非洲的钴和铂矿具有成本优势，而铜和锌生产商则面临更深层次开采和能源价格波动带来的挑战。时间序列预测表明，到2055年，铂的生产成本将增加70%至80%，钴和铜的生产成本将增加60%至65%，锌的生产成本将增加60%，主要原因是包括劳动力、能源和技术投资在内的矿场成本不断上升。研究结果对政策制定者和投资者具有直接意义。虽然非洲仍然是crm的主要供应国，但成本动态表明，在能源效率、劳动力发展和可持续采矿实践方面的投资等战略干预措施对于确保长期竞争力至关重要。这项研究为在非洲矿物生产不断变化的情况下进行数据驱动的决策提供了基础。

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引用次数: 0

Effects of the Fundão Dam break on the performance of socioeconomic indicators in Mariana municipality, Minas Gerais State fund<e:1> o溃坝对米纳斯吉拉斯州马里亚纳市社会经济指标绩效的影响

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-29 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105799

Thiago Vinícius Alves Monteiro , Valente José Matlaba , Gabriel Costa Maciel Moia , Jorge Filipe dos Santos

The objective of this study was to analyze the effects of the collapse of the Fundão Dam on the performance of seven socioeconomic indicators in the Mariana municipality, Minas Gerais, and to evaluate the contribution of the Renova Foundation's repair and recovery actions in improving these indicators. We applied the synthetic control method, as recommended by the literature, when the unit of interest underwent a unique intervention not shared with other units. The construction of the control group considers similarities—characteristics before the event—to the treatment unit. We found that Mariana lacked an effective economic recovery after the event and that labor changes related to temporary activities had a different profile from that of those employed in mining (mostly specialized technical professionals). There was a drop in investments in sport and leisure, which are sectors associated with improving revenues and other social indicators, such as crime, as highlighted by local leaders. In addition to amplifying existing approaches to this event, this work could guide future actions by mining companies in sectors with still low performance. The study can subsidize research on other municipalities with similar situations or structural events and contribute to studies that test the socioeconomic effects of interventions.

本研究的目的是分析fund o大坝倒塌对米纳斯吉拉斯州马里亚纳市七项社会经济指标的影响，并评估Renova基金会的修复和恢复行动对改善这些指标的贡献。当感兴趣的单元经历了不与其他单元共享的独特干预时，我们采用文献推荐的综合控制方法。控制组的构建考虑了事件发生前与治疗组的相似之处。我们发现，事故发生后，马里亚纳缺乏有效的经济复苏，与临时活动相关的劳动力变化与采矿业（主要是专业技术人员）的就业情况不同。体育和休闲领域的投资有所下降，而地方领导人强调，这些领域与提高收入和其他社会指标（如犯罪率）有关。除了扩大对这一事件的现有办法外，这项工作还可以指导矿业公司在业绩仍然较低的部门的未来行动。这项研究可以资助其他有类似情况或结构性事件的城市的研究，并有助于测试干预措施的社会经济影响的研究。

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引用次数: 0

Asymmetric volatility spillover between clean energy and nonferrous metal markets under climate risks: Portfolio hedging implications 气候风险下清洁能源和有色金属市场不对称波动溢出：投资组合对冲影响

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105801

Qingying Zheng , Jintao Wu , Boqiang Lin

Although extensive research has been conducted on the risk spillover between clean energy and the non-ferrous metals markets, there has been limited discussion on the role of asymmetric volatility spillover and climate risks in this context. This paper integrates semivariance decomposition with a Tail Event-driven NETwork (TENET) to assess both negative (bad) and positive (good) volatility spillovers in the clean energy and non-ferrous metals markets. The study considers both climate transition and physical risks within the flexible, high-dimensional TENET framework. We find that the patterns of negative and positive volatility spillovers between clean energy and non-ferrous metals markets exhibit significant asymmetry in network structure and dynamics, as evidenced by the total connectedness index. Additionally, we confirm that incorporating physical and transition risks is crucial in analyzing volatility spillovers in these markets. Finally,the portfolio implications underscore the informational and economic value of asymmetric volatility spillover analysis. The findings of this study may have practical implications for policymakers aiming to enhance risk early warning systems and could assist investors in portfolio management.

尽管对清洁能源和有色金属市场之间的风险溢出进行了广泛的研究，但对不对称波动溢出和气候风险在这一背景下的作用的讨论有限。本文将半方差分解与尾部事件驱动网络（TENET）相结合，以评估清洁能源和有色金属市场的负（坏）和正（好）波动溢出效应。该研究在灵活、高维的TENET框架内考虑了气候转变和物理风险。研究发现，清洁能源和有色金属市场的负、正波动溢出模式在网络结构和动态上表现出显著的不对称性，这一点可以通过总连通性指数来证明。此外，我们确认，在分析这些市场的波动溢出效应时，纳入实物风险和转型风险至关重要。最后，投资组合的影响强调了不对称波动溢出分析的信息和经济价值。本研究的结果可能对旨在加强风险预警系统的政策制定者具有实际意义，并可以帮助投资者进行投资组合管理。

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引用次数: 0

Changes in international copper ore trading relationships due to the impact of COVID-19 pandemic: Based on social network analysis 新冠肺炎疫情影响下国际铜矿石贸易关系的变化——基于社会网络分析

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105794

Woolrim Lee, Maria Valeria Aguinaga Fonseca, Yusa Qursillananda, Munyphakdey Koet, Seokhui Lee

Copper is an essential metal in our daily lives, but the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic led to unexpected changes in international trade in copper ore. This study uses social network analysis to examine the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on the international copper ore trading network, focusing on dynamics among countries participating in copper ore trading. Data from Trade Map was divided into two periods based on the outbreak of the pandemic. The findings reveal notable changes in the global copper ore market dynamics, highlighting the pandemic's influence on trade relationships. While some changes in the rankings of leading countries in overall trade, import, and export relations are observed, China maintained its dominant and strategic position in the international copper ore trade network throughout the entire study period, despite the challenges posed by the pandemic. Additionally, while South American countries such as Chile and Peru appear prominently in the copper ore export network, Asian countries emerged as major importers. This study offers a comprehensive view of the global copper ore trade, highlighting the unexpected challenges brought by the pandemic. The findings provide valuable insights for stakeholders, aiding in informed investment and policy decisions within the resource sector.

铜是我们日常生活中必不可少的金属，但新冠肺炎疫情的爆发导致国际铜矿石贸易发生了意想不到的变化。本研究利用社会网络分析方法考察新冠肺炎疫情对国际铜矿石贸易网络的影响，重点关注参与铜矿石贸易的国家之间的动态。贸易地图的数据根据大流行的爆发情况分为两个时期。调查结果揭示了全球铜矿石市场动态的显著变化，突出了疫情对贸易关系的影响。尽管观察到总体贸易和进出口关系的主要国家排名发生了一些变化，但在整个研究期间，尽管面临疫情带来的挑战，中国在国际铜矿石贸易网络中保持了主导地位和战略地位。此外，虽然智利和秘鲁等南美国家在铜矿石出口网络中占据突出地位，但亚洲国家已成为主要进口国。这项研究提供了全球铜矿石贸易的全面视图，突出了疫情带来的意想不到的挑战。研究结果为利益相关者提供了有价值的见解，有助于资源行业的明智投资和政策决策。

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引用次数: 0

Multilevel governance under urgency: Developing battery industry in the EU 紧迫的多层次治理：在欧盟发展电池产业

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105825

Juha M. Kotilainen , Rauno Sairinen , Hanna Lehtimäki , Nuppu Mielonen

Urgency has become a key concept in framing the need for rapid governance action to address global sustainability challenges. However, its impact on the multilevel governance of large-scale green industrialization processes remains insufficiently explored. We propose a three-dimensional framework – encompassing multilevel reinforcement, power dynamics and societal tensions – to investigate how heightening urgency is shaping the multilevel governance of the emerging electric vehicle battery industry in the EU and Finnish policy context. We find that urgency manifests as multilevel reinforcement across all tiers of governance, resulting in rapid development, high acceptance, and swift adaptation of new policies. It influences multilevel power dynamics by intensifying competition and fostering new arrangements that appear to favor larger economies and international corporations, while simultaneously generating risks, particularly at the regional level. We identify societal tensions related to the functionality of global value chains, permitting systems, trade-offs between local and global environmental impacts, and pervasive uncertainty. This study contributes to an increased understanding of multilevel governance systems in complex green industrialization processes.

在确定应对全球可持续性挑战的快速治理行动的必要性时，紧迫性已成为一个关键概念。然而，其对大规模绿色工业化过程多层次治理的影响尚未得到充分探讨。我们提出了一个三维框架——包括多层强化、权力动态和社会紧张关系——来调查在欧盟和芬兰的政策背景下，日益紧迫的紧迫性如何塑造新兴电动汽车电池行业的多层治理。我们发现，紧迫性表现为跨所有治理层的多层强化，从而导致新政策的快速发展、高接受度和快速适应。它通过加剧竞争和促进似乎有利于较大经济体和国际公司的新安排，影响多层权力动态，同时产生风险，特别是在区域一级。我们确定了与全球价值链功能、许可制度、地方和全球环境影响之间的权衡以及普遍存在的不确定性相关的社会紧张关系。本研究有助于加深对复杂绿色工业化过程中多层次治理体系的理解。

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引用次数: 0

Climate policy uncertainty and the co-movement between clean energy and metal markets: A spillover perspective 气候政策的不确定性与清洁能源和金属市场的联动：溢出效应视角

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105818

Zhiwei Bi, Qiaosheng Wu, Lulu Luo

Frequent changes in climate policy have intensified uncertainty and strengthened cross-market linkages between clean energy and metal markets. Climate-policy-induced uncertainty may disrupt investors’ expectations regarding clean energy projects and lead to imbalances in the supply and demand of related metals, thereby amplifying volatility spillovers between the two markets. This study employs the TVP-VAR-DY model, wavelet coherence analysis, and the GARCH-MIDAS-CPU framework to examine volatility spillovers between two representative clean energy markets (solar and wind) and seven key metal markets from both time-domain and frequency-domain perspectives. The results show that, in the time domain, significant spillover effects exist across markets, with wind energy, silver, copper, and zinc acting as net spillover transmitters, while the solar energy market plays an intermediary role. In the frequency domain, wavelet coherence results indicate that the solar energy market dominates most long-run linkages with metal markets, particularly exhibiting persistent positive co-movements with copper and zinc, reflecting its role as a key demand driver at the downstream end of the clean energy–metal supply chain. In contrast, wind energy exhibits more heterogeneous and frequency-dependent relationships, with weaker long-run persistence with metals such as nickel, lead, and tin. Overall, clean energy markets play a leading role in influencing most metal markets. Moreover, climate policy uncertainty has a significantly positive effect on market volatility and amplifies spillover transmission between clean energy and metal markets.

气候政策的频繁变化加剧了不确定性，并加强了清洁能源和金属市场之间的跨市场联系。气候政策引发的不确定性可能会扰乱投资者对清洁能源项目的预期，导致相关金属的供需失衡，从而放大两个市场之间的波动溢出效应。本研究采用TVP-VAR-DY模型、小波相干性分析和GARCH-MIDAS-CPU框架，从时域和频域的角度考察了两个具有代表性的清洁能源市场（太阳能和风能）和七个关键金属市场之间的波动溢出效应。结果表明，在时间域上，各市场存在显著的溢出效应，风能、银、铜和锌是净溢出传递器，而太阳能市场起中介作用。在频域，小波相干性结果表明，太阳能市场主导着与金属市场的大多数长期联系，特别是与铜和锌表现出持续的积极协同运动，反映了其作为清洁能源-金属供应链下游端的关键需求驱动因素的作用。相比之下，风能表现出更多的异质性和频率依赖关系，与镍、铅和锡等金属的长期持久性较弱。总体而言，清洁能源市场在影响大多数金属市场方面发挥着主导作用。此外，气候政策的不确定性对市场波动具有显著的正向影响，并放大了清洁能源和金属市场之间的溢出效应传导。

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引用次数: 0

Scandium extraction from Malaysian industrial waste: Challenges and opportunities for a sustainable energy future 从马来西亚工业废料中提取钪：可持续能源未来的挑战和机遇

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-05 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105810

Eli Syafiqah Aziman , Aznan Fazli Ismail , Mohd Syukri Yahya , Batari Toja Iskandar

The power generation sector in Malaysia is under considerable pressure to achieve the nation's commitment to carbon neutrality, primarily due to its substantial dependence on coal. To address these issues, Malaysia has prioritised the shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy (RE) sources for electricity generation. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are a promising renewable technology under consideration by the government to address consumer energy demand in Malaysia. The element Scandium (Sc) is primarily utilized in the third generation of SOFC, which consequently increases the demand for scandium oxide in the global market. The increased demand coupled with restricted supply, leading to higher prices of scandium oxide, could significantly impact Malaysia's renewable energy policy regarding the implementation of SOFC in its energy sector. The review examines methods for extracting scandium from a potential industrial waste in Malaysia. To effectively explore the potential and sustainability of SOFC energy in Malaysia, the government must focus on three key parameters: resource mapping and policy reform, lab-to-pilot scale technology development (TRL3–6), industry-government R&D partnerships and commercialization, full integration into the circular economy through sustainable scandium recovery from residues, strengthening environmental and social governance and enhancing ASEAN level cooperation to support regional critical mineral resilience. A framework addressing these six parameters is proposed to facilitate the integration of potential scandium sources from industrial waste into Malaysia's energy system.

由于对煤炭的严重依赖，马来西亚的发电部门在实现国家对碳中和的承诺方面面临着相当大的压力。为了解决这些问题，马来西亚优先考虑从化石燃料转向可再生能源（RE）发电。固体氧化物燃料电池（sofc）是马来西亚政府正在考虑的一项有前途的可再生技术，以满足消费者的能源需求。钪（Sc）元素主要用于第三代SOFC，因此增加了全球市场对氧化钪的需求。需求增加加上供应受限，导致氧化钪价格上涨，可能会严重影响马来西亚在能源部门实施SOFC的可再生能源政策。该审查审查了从马来西亚潜在的工业废物中提取钪的方法。为了有效探索马来西亚SOFC能源的潜力和可持续性，政府必须关注三个关键参数：资源测绘和政策改革、实验室到试点规模的技术开发（TRL3-6）、产业-政府研发伙伴关系和商业化、通过可持续的钪残留物回收充分融入循环经济、加强环境和社会治理、加强东盟层面的合作，以支持区域关键矿产的恢复能力。提出了一个解决这六个参数的框架，以促进将工业废物中的潜在钪源整合到马来西亚的能源系统中。

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引用次数: 0

From path dependency to path renewal? The reinvention of local economies in rural resource communities in Newfoundland and Labrador through partnerships 从路径依赖到路径更新？通过伙伴关系重塑纽芬兰和拉布拉多农村资源社区的地方经济

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-10 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105816

Joshua Barrett

Rural areas are predisposed with rich natural assets which are attractive to resource-based sectors, ranging from renewables, such as fishery to forestry, to non-renewables, including mining and oil and gas. Despite the potential benefit of these sectors to the local economy, rural communities often entrench themselves in a path dependent relationship with these commodities, creating barriers to facilitate economic diversification opportunities, paired with the cyclic nature of the boom-bust cycle. Using Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, as a case study, this paper highlights ways that rural communities can reinvent their local economies by redefining their path dependency arrangements and experience path renewal. The Towns of Fogo Island, Bonavista, Grand Falls-Windsor, and the Great Northern Peninsula have been effective in utilizing economic development partnerships to help transform governance in their communities that has helped break path dependency. These findings have potential to assist resource-dependent communities in their rural economic development activities.

农村地区拥有丰富的自然资产，对资源型部门具有吸引力，从渔业、林业等可再生能源到包括采矿、石油和天然气在内的非可再生能源。尽管这些部门对当地经济有潜在的好处，但农村社区往往与这些商品建立一种路径依赖关系，为促进经济多样化机会制造障碍，再加上繁荣-萧条周期的周期性。本文以加拿大纽芬兰和拉布拉多为例，强调了农村社区可以通过重新定义路径依赖安排和经历路径更新来重塑当地经济的方式。福戈岛镇、博纳维斯塔镇、大瀑布-温莎镇和大北方半岛镇有效地利用经济发展伙伴关系，帮助改变社区的治理方式，从而打破了对道路的依赖。这些发现有可能帮助依赖资源的社区开展农村经济发展活动。

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引用次数: 0

A low-cost, high-efficiency method for the extraction and purification of rhenium as ammonium perrhenate from molybdenite roasting dust 一种低成本、高效率从辉钼矿焙烧粉尘中提取高铼酸铵的方法

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-27 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105791

Saeid Narimany , Mahboubeh Rabbani , Shahriar Ghamami

Rhenium is one of the rarest and most strategically significant transition metals, classified among critical minerals due to its indispensable role in aerospace, defense, and energy technologies. Its exceptional high-temperature stability makes it essential in nickel-based superalloys for jet engines and in platinum–rhenium catalysts for clean fuel production. However, the scarcity of primary deposits and concentration of supply in a few countries expose global industries to geopolitical and supply chain risks. This study presents a low-cost, high-efficiency process for extracting and purifying rhenium as ammonium perrhenate from molybdenite roasting dust, using locally available equipment and chemical reagents. The process, tested at both laboratory and industrial scales, achieved high recovery yields while significantly reducing operational costs compared to conventional methods. Beyond the technical achievement, the proposed approach offers strategic value for rhenium-producing countries by enabling domestic value addition, reducing import dependency, and enhancing competitiveness in high-tech and energy sectors. The potential to support national critical mineral strategies highlights the broader policy and market relevance of this work.

铼是最稀有和最具战略意义的过渡金属之一，因其在航空航天、国防和能源技术中不可或缺的作用而被列为关键矿物。其优异的高温稳定性使其在用于喷气发动机的镍基高温合金和用于清洁燃料生产的铂铼催化剂中必不可少。然而，初级矿藏的稀缺和供应集中在少数国家，使全球工业面临地缘政治和供应链风险。本研究提出了一种低成本、高效率的从辉钼矿焙烧粉尘中提取并提纯铼为过铼酸铵的工艺。经过实验室和工业规模的测试，与传统方法相比，该工艺实现了高回收率，同时显著降低了运营成本。除了技术成就之外，拟议的方法还为铼生产国提供了战略价值，使其能够实现国内增值，减少对进口的依赖，并提高高科技和能源部门的竞争力。支持国家关键矿物战略的潜力突出了这项工作的更广泛的政策和市场相关性。

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引用次数: 0

Are some minerals more governable? Copper mining materialities and formalization of artisanal and small-scale mining in Peru 有些矿产更容易治理吗？秘鲁的铜矿开采材料和手工和小规模采矿的正规化

IF 10.2 2区经济学 0 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Resources Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105813

Luis Meléndez , Sandra McKay

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is one of the main non-agricultural activities in the developing world, despite its often informal or illegal status. The formalization of ASM has been central in efforts to address the sector's challenges and enhance its potential for rural livelihoods. However, in Latin America, much of the academic and policy focus on ASM has been on gold mining, with standardized approaches to resource governance that overlook the sector's diversity. Such perspectives fail to address the distinct possibilities and constraints of formalization, which often vary depending on the mineral type and geological conditions. Based on extensive ethnographic and qualitative research in northern Peru, this article examines how the materiality of copper-rich mineral extraction has facilitated artisanal miners' progress in the formalization process. Without falling into geological reductionism, we argue that the material and geological properties of copper-rich deposits in some ASM mine sites can catalyze socio-political arrangements and technical transitions aligned with the goals of Peru's formalization policy. In line with this argument, we first show how copper's geological characteristics discourage the use of cyanide and mercury, thereby promoting more environmentally acceptable mining practices. Secondly, we explore how the necessity for deep mining in copper extraction encourages capitalization, technological innovation, and professionalization of mining activities. Finally, we discuss how security and logistical challenges involved in the transportation of large volumes of copper-rich raw minerals incentivize formalization. By focusing on non-gold ASM, this research contributes to a growing body of literature on the factors that influence formalization efforts, underscoring the pivotal role of resource materiality.

手工和小规模采矿是发展中国家的主要非农业活动之一，尽管其往往是非正式或非法的。ASM的正规化一直是解决该部门挑战和提高其对农村生计潜力的努力的核心。然而，在拉丁美洲，ASM的学术和政策重点大多集中在金矿开采上，其资源治理的标准化方法忽视了该行业的多样性。这种观点没有考虑到形式化的独特可能性和限制因素，这些因素往往因矿物类型和地质条件而异。基于对秘鲁北部广泛的人种学和定性研究，本文考察了富含铜的矿物开采的重要性如何促进了手工矿工在正规化过程中的进步。在不陷入地质还原论的情况下，我们认为，一些ASM矿区的富铜矿的物质和地质性质可以催化社会政治安排和技术转型，与秘鲁正规化政策的目标一致。根据这一论点，我们首先展示了铜的地质特征如何阻止氰化物和汞的使用，从而促进更环保的采矿实践。其次，我们探讨了铜开采中深部开采的必要性如何鼓励采矿活动的资本化、技术创新和专业化。最后，我们讨论了大量富含铜的原料矿物运输中涉及的安全和后勤挑战如何激励正规化。通过关注非黄金的ASM，本研究为影响形式化努力的因素提供了越来越多的文献，强调了资源物质性的关键作用。

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引用次数: 0