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Application of the “Novel Foods” Regulation to Botanicals in the European Union 欧盟对植物药适用 "新食品 "法规
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-02-16 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010010
Javier Morán, Alina Kilasoniya
The European Union classifies “novel foods” as those not widely consumed before 15 May 1997. This category includes recently created, innovative foods, as well as those made using new technologies and processes, and foods with a traditional consumption history outside the EU. Distinguishing between “novel” and “conventional” foods is legally significant, as the former require official authorization under the Novel Foods Regulation. The regulation prioritizes safety, accurate labeling, and nutritional parity with replaced foods. Regulation (EU) 2015/2283, effective from 1 January 2018, replaced prior regulations, facilitating access to the EU market for novel and innovative foods while maintaining high safety standards. Classifying botanical products as novel can be intricate. Safety assessments for plant products must consider diversity in species, varieties, ecotypes, and chemotypes, as cultivation practices influence chemical composition. The article reviews the legislation applicable to botanicals and proposes different ways to evaluate in advance whether a product is “novel” or not, emphasizing the evaluation of the origin and consumption history of foods of plant origin.
欧盟将 "新食品 "归类为那些在 1997 年 5 月 15 日之前未被广泛消费的食品。这类食品包括新近创造的创新食品、使用新技术和新工艺生产的食品以及在欧盟以外地区有传统消费历史的食品。区分 "新颖 "食品和 "传统 "食品具有重要的法律意义,因为前者需要根据《新颖食品条例》获得官方授权。该条例优先考虑安全性、准确标签以及与被替代食品的营养平等。自 2018 年 1 月 1 日起生效的(欧盟)第 2015/2283 号法规取代了之前的法规,为新型和创新食品进入欧盟市场提供了便利,同时保持了较高的安全标准。将植物产品归类为新颖产品可能会很复杂。植物产品的安全评估必须考虑物种、品种、生态型和化学型的多样性,因为种植方法会影响化学成分。文章回顾了适用于植物药的法规,并提出了提前评估产品是否 "新颖 "的不同方法,强调了对植物源食品的来源和消费历史的评估。
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引用次数: 0
A Renaissance of Civic Education and Civic Engagement in Higher Education in the Spirit of the American Founders and Constitutionalism 秉承美国建国者和宪政精神,复兴高等教育中的公民教育和公民参与
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-02-06 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010008
Kody W. Cooper
A growing number of states have responded to negative trends in civic knowledge, trust, and engagement by creating new institutes or schools at state universities, with the express aim of reinvigorating civic education and thoughtful, engaged citizenship. In seeking to increase civic knowledge, champion viewpoint diversity, model civil discussion of ideas, combat polarization, and embrace the civic responsibilities of higher education, these institutes can be seen as carrying forward the American founders’ vision of civic education, the moral foundations of law and constitutionalism, and the constitutional principles of free speech and federalism.
越来越多的州针对公民知识、信任和参与方面的消极趋势,在州立大学设立了新的研究所或学院,其明确目标是重振公民教育,培养深思熟虑、积极参与的公民意识。在寻求增加公民知识、倡导观点多样性、示范文明的思想讨论、反对两极分化以及承担高等教育的公民责任时,这些研究所可以被视为是在发扬美国建国者的公民教育愿景、法律和宪政的道德基础以及言论自由和联邦制的宪法原则。
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引用次数: 0
Protection of Property under Human Rights and International Investment Law: A Case-Law Analysis 人权和国际投资法下的财产保护:案例分析
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-02-01 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010006
Eleni Gavriil
The article herein examines the case-law interplay between human rights and international investment law. An example of this interplay is the relation of property rights to protection from expropriation. In this study, a conceptual framework is developed, which represents the various ways of case-law interaction between the two disciplines regarding protection of property. This is achieved by using a cross-reference approach, where it is proven that the two legal fields overlap and share these common principles, albeit with their structural differences. This interplay has various dimensions, and this article aims at analysing them and ultimately illustrating that human rights and international investment law are not independent from each other.
本文探讨了人权与国际投资法之间的案例法相互作用。这种相互作用的一个例子是财产权与免于征用的保护之间的关系。在本研究中,建立了一个概念框架,该框架体现了两个学科在财产保护方面的判例法互动的各种方式。这是通过交叉引用法实现的,它证明了这两个法律领域尽管在结构上存在差异,但却相互重叠并共享这些共同的原则。这种相互作用涉及多个方面,本文旨在对其进行分析,并最终说明人权和国际投资法并非相互独立。
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引用次数: 0
Technology Architecture as an Instrument for Digital Taxation 作为数字税收工具的技术架构
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-02-01 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010007
A. Cahyadini, Sherly Ayuna Putri, Tasya Safiranita, Muhammad Jaka Hidayat
Digital transformation fuels technological advancement and widespread public use of Internet networks, leading to a growth in digital platform users. This increase is highly likely to boost platform profits by obtaining more insights into user behavior. Additionally, digital platforms generate income through monetization. The purpose of this research is to examine the role and challenges of technology architecture as an instrument of digital tax imposition in Indonesia and to see further the digital tax arrangements in Indonesia and several countries in the world. This research uses a normative juridical approach by examining the norms or rules formulated in law without excluding empirical facts in the field. The results show that the imposition, implementation, and regulation of digital taxes have potential and challenges from various aspects. Their success will depend on the ability to overcome these challenges while maximizing the opportunities of technological architecture to increase digital taxes. Furthermore, to regulate digital tax itself, governments can update and integrate digital tax arrangements, as well as collaborate with other related parties regarding the arrangements or principles used for the imposition of digital tax.
数字化转型推动了技术进步和公众对互联网络的广泛使用,从而导致数字平台用户的增长。这种增长极有可能通过深入了解用户行为来提高平台利润。此外,数字平台通过货币化产生收入。本研究旨在探讨技术架构作为印尼数字税征收工具的作用和挑战,并进一步了解印尼和世界多个国家的数字税安排。本研究采用规范法学方法,在不排除实地经验事实的情况下,对法律中制定的规范或规则进行研究。研究结果表明,数字税的征收、实施和监管具有潜力,同时也面临各方面的挑战。其成功与否取决于能否克服这些挑战,同时最大限度地利用技术架构的机遇来增加数字税收。此外,为了规范数字税收本身,政府可以更新和整合数字税收安排,并就征收数字税收的安排或原则与其他相关方开展合作。
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引用次数: 0
Protection of Property under Human Rights and International Investment Law: A Case-Law Analysis 人权和国际投资法下的财产保护:案例分析
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-02-01 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010006
Eleni Gavriil
The article herein examines the case-law interplay between human rights and international investment law. An example of this interplay is the relation of property rights to protection from expropriation. In this study, a conceptual framework is developed, which represents the various ways of case-law interaction between the two disciplines regarding protection of property. This is achieved by using a cross-reference approach, where it is proven that the two legal fields overlap and share these common principles, albeit with their structural differences. This interplay has various dimensions, and this article aims at analysing them and ultimately illustrating that human rights and international investment law are not independent from each other.
本文探讨了人权与国际投资法之间的案例法相互作用。这种相互作用的一个例子是财产权与免于征用的保护之间的关系。在本研究中,建立了一个概念框架,该框架体现了两个学科在财产保护方面的判例法互动的各种方式。这是通过交叉引用法实现的,它证明了这两个法律领域尽管在结构上存在差异,但却相互重叠并共享这些共同的原则。这种相互作用涉及多个方面,本文旨在对其进行分析,并最终说明人权和国际投资法并非相互独立。
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引用次数: 0
Technology Architecture as an Instrument for Digital Taxation 作为数字税收工具的技术架构
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-02-01 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010007
A. Cahyadini, Sherly Ayuna Putri, Tasya Safiranita, Muhammad Jaka Hidayat
Digital transformation fuels technological advancement and widespread public use of Internet networks, leading to a growth in digital platform users. This increase is highly likely to boost platform profits by obtaining more insights into user behavior. Additionally, digital platforms generate income through monetization. The purpose of this research is to examine the role and challenges of technology architecture as an instrument of digital tax imposition in Indonesia and to see further the digital tax arrangements in Indonesia and several countries in the world. This research uses a normative juridical approach by examining the norms or rules formulated in law without excluding empirical facts in the field. The results show that the imposition, implementation, and regulation of digital taxes have potential and challenges from various aspects. Their success will depend on the ability to overcome these challenges while maximizing the opportunities of technological architecture to increase digital taxes. Furthermore, to regulate digital tax itself, governments can update and integrate digital tax arrangements, as well as collaborate with other related parties regarding the arrangements or principles used for the imposition of digital tax.
数字化转型推动了技术进步和公众对互联网络的广泛使用,从而导致数字平台用户的增长。这种增长极有可能通过深入了解用户行为来提高平台利润。此外,数字平台通过货币化产生收入。本研究旨在探讨技术架构作为印尼数字税征收工具的作用和挑战,并进一步了解印尼和世界多个国家的数字税安排。本研究采用规范法学方法,在不排除实地经验事实的情况下,对法律中制定的规范或规则进行研究。研究结果表明,数字税的征收、实施和监管具有潜力,同时也面临各方面的挑战。其成功与否取决于能否克服这些挑战,同时最大限度地利用技术架构的机遇来增加数字税收。此外,为了规范数字税收本身,政府可以更新和整合数字税收安排,并就征收数字税收的安排或原则与其他相关方开展合作。
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引用次数: 0
The Americans with Disabilities Act and Equal Access to Public Spaces 美国残疾人法》与平等使用公共空间
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-01-24 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010005
Barry A. Whaley, Jonathan G. Martinis, Giuseppe F. Pagano, Sara Barthol, Jessica Senzer, Pamela R. Williamson, Peter D. Blanck
Since the passage of the landmark Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the United States federal government, states, and localities have passed laws and created policies intended to ensure that people with disabilities had full and equal access to public spaces. Nevertheless, more than three decades after the ADA, people with disabilities continue to face architectural and other barriers to community inclusion and participation. This article describes laws, policies, and initiatives that are implemented in the United States at the federal, state, and local levels to address these barriers, examines their effectiveness, and describes the views of advocates working in furtherance of the rights of people with disabilities and the inclusiveness of public spaces. We conclude by providing brief recommendations for ways federal, state, and local governments may ensure people with disabilities have full and equal access to public spaces.
自 1990 年具有里程碑意义的《美国残疾人法案》通过以来,美国联邦政府、各州和地方政府纷纷通过法律和制定政策,旨在确保残疾人能够充分、平等地出入公共场所。然而,在《美国残疾人法案》颁布三十多年后的今天,残疾人在融入和参与社区活动时仍然面临着建筑和其他方面的障碍。本文介绍了美国联邦、州和地方各级为解决这些障碍而实施的法律、政策和举措,研究了它们的有效性,并阐述了致力于促进残疾人权利和公共空间包容性的倡导者的观点。最后,我们就联邦、州和地方政府如何确保残疾人能够充分、平等地使用公共空间提出了简要建议。
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引用次数: 0
Exploring Defuturing to Design Artificial-Intelligence Artifacts: A Systemic-Design Approach to Tackle Litigiousness in the Brazilian Judiciary 探索去伪存真,设计人工智能产品:解决巴西司法机构诉讼问题的系统设计方法
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-01-11 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010004
L. A. C. Münch, Taís Schilling Ferraz
From the perspective of defuturing design philosophy, this article discusses the close relationship between the growing body of artificial-intelligence (AI) artifacts in the Brazilian Judiciary and the phenomenon of litigiousness therein. Litigiousness has traditionally been tackled through mechanisms that increase productivity and efficiency in case processing, a strategy that has not succeeded in reducing litigiousness, as data make evident. Analyzing data from relevant sources, this article demonstrates that AI artifacts mostly perform tasks related to clustering and mass handling of cases, following the same path dependency. Consequently, they entail risks of judges’ alienation and loss of agency, which can negatively impact citizens’ fundamental rights. Moreover, they defuture; that is, they erase other (preferable) futures. Albeit AI artifacts can play a part in tackling litigiousness, there should be a critical reflection upon futuring and defuturing. Therefore, this article recommends that SoDF—a systemic approach to design that seeks to explore design consequences, futuring and defuturing—be mandatory to any AI design process. Additionally, it proposes continuous judicial monitoring for alienation and loss of agency, as well as investments in judicial education to empower judges to effectively control and supervise AI artifacts. Finally, it suggests a further research agenda.
本文从去污设计哲学的角度出发,讨论了巴西司法机构中日益增多的人工智能(AI)人工制品与其中的诉讼现象之间的密切关系。诉讼率问题历来是通过提高案件处理的生产力和效率的机制来解决的,但正如数据所显示的那样,这一策略并没有成功减少诉讼率。本文分析了相关来源的数据,表明人工智能人工智能主要执行与案件集群和大规模处理相关的任务,遵循相同的路径依赖。因此,它们会带来法官异化和丧失代理权的风险,从而对公民的基本权利产生负面影响。此外,人工智能还具有 "去未来化"(defuture)的特点,即抹杀了其他(更可取的)未来。尽管 AI 人工智能可以在解决诉讼问题方面发挥作用,但我们应该对未来化和去未来化进行批判性反思。因此,本文建议,SoDF--一种系统性的设计方法,旨在探索设计后果、未来性和违宪性--应成为任何人工智能设计过程的必修课。此外,文章还建议对异化和代理权丧失进行持续的司法监控,并对司法教育进行投资,以增强法官有效控制和监督人工智能人工制品的能力。最后,它提出了进一步的研究议程。
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引用次数: 0
Why Equity Follows the Law 为什么公平要遵循法律
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-01-03 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010003
Adam J. MacLeod
Renewed attention to equity in higher education is welcome because true equity helps us to reason together well. When administered correctly, the jurisprudence of equity models civil discourse and, therefore, can teach us how to carry out civic engagement reasonably. Equitable interpretation of the law teaches us how to understand each other charitably. And equity’s deference to law teaches us how to reason well together about our practical problems. Law is the practical reasoning that we do together. Equity serves the ends of justice by serving law, rather than undermining it. These functions of equity in adjudication point toward a model of equity in practical reasoning and civic discourse more broadly. Research method: jurisprudence.
重新关注高等教育中的公平问题是值得欢迎的,因为真正的公平有助于我们很好地共同推理。如果管理得当,公平的法理就会成为公民对话的典范,从而教会我们如何合理地进行公民参与。对法律的公平解释教会我们如何以慈善的方式相互理解。公平对法律的尊重教会我们如何共同合理地解决实际问题。法律是我们共同进行的实际推理。衡平法服务于法律,而不是破坏法律,从而达到正义的目的。公平在裁决中的这些功能指向了更广泛的实际推理和公民话语中的公平模式。研究方法:法理学。
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引用次数: 0
The Professional Conflict Pertaining to Confidentiality—The Obligation of Disclosure for Intermediaries of Financial Transactions 与保密有关的职业冲突--金融交易中介的披露义务
IF 1.2 Q3 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2023-12-31 DOI: 10.3390/laws13010002
Mihaela Tofan, Alina-Adriana Arseni
The present study aims at providing an overview of the international, European, and national legal frameworks relating to the obligation of intermediaries of financial transactions to report to tax authorities, and the professional secrecy which applies to their professions, as well as the conflict between the two. The authors address these topics from theoretical and jurisprudential perspectives, both at national and European levels, using doctrinaire, documentary, and comparative approaches. The analyses pointed out that the focus is placed on lawyer–intermediaries’ activities and liabilities when their activity is covered by confidentiality and legal privilege. Specific attention was revealed to be necessary when the conditions under which an exemption from the reporting obligation applies, and the particularities of the effects of the regulation in these scenarios. The topic of observing the legal framework and solving the possible conflicts generated by the divergent regulation of the law enforced has been the subject matter of recent European case laws that impact all the legal systems of the European Union’s member states, which has necessitated an examination of the hierarchy of law systems within the European Union member states and to emphasize the practical jurisprudential effects.
本研究旨在概述与金融交易中介向税务机关报告的义务和适用于其职业的职业保密有关的国际、欧洲和国家法律框架,以及两者之间的冲突。作者从国家和欧洲层面的理论和法理学角度,采用学说、文献和比较的方法探讨了这些主题。分析指出,当律师中介的活动受到保密和法律特权的保护时,其活动和责任是重点。分析表明,有必要特别关注在哪些情况下可以免除报告义务,以及在这些情况下法规效力的特殊性。观察法律框架和解决因执行的法律规定不同而可能产生的冲突一直是近期欧洲判例法的主题,这些判例法影响了欧盟成员国的所有法律体系,因此有必要对欧盟成员国内部的法律体系等级进行审查,并强调实际的判例效果。
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引用次数: 0
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