Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340050
L. Ferhat
This article focuses on the centrality of the heart in al-Ghazālī’s (d. 505/1111) thought. More specifically, it shifts the focus from al-Ghazālī’s doctrinal position, at stake when he defines the heart—which has already received much attention—to the practical aspect of the heart, namely its role within al-Ghazālī’s reformative project. In doing so, it brings to the fore the entanglement between knowledge acquisition, character refinement, and illumination at the end of the soteriological path, that is, the path leading to the soul’s salvation. Paying particular attention to the heart as a medium of light, this article seeks to extend the recent interrogation of philosophy as a way of life, expanding philosophy’s perceived boundaries in contemporary thought. In al-Ghazālī’s writings, the heart serves not only as the essence of man, but also as a synecdoche for the individual, that is, for the very essence of human subjectivity. As a medium of light, through proper training and spiritual practices, the heart becomes the locus of knowledge acquisition, character refinement, and the final conversion of the gaze. Al-Ghazālī’s conception of the heart, then, stands at the crossroads of Sufism and philosophy, where a conception of knowledge that is inseparable from ethics and aesthetics emerges. By examining this merging of ethics and aesthetics in al-Ghazālī’s thought, this article argues for the significance of aesthetics to al-Ghazālī, despite his ambivalence towards analogies and sense-perception.
本文着重于al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111)思想中心脏的中心地位。更具体地说，它将焦点从al-Ghazālī的教义立场转移到心脏的实际方面，即它在al-Ghazālī改革计划中的作用，当他定义心脏时，这已经受到了很多关注。在这样做的过程中，它突出了知识获取、品格修养和救赎之路尽头的启示之间的纠缠，也就是通往灵魂救赎的道路。本文特别关注心灵作为光的媒介，试图扩展最近对哲学作为一种生活方式的质疑，扩大哲学在当代思想中的感知边界。在al-Ghazālī的作品中，心不仅是人的本质，而且是个体的提喻，即人的主体性的本质。作为光的媒介，通过适当的训练和精神实践，心成为获得知识、修养品格和最终转换凝视的场所。因此，Al-Ghazālī的心的概念，站在苏菲主义和哲学的十字路口，一个知识的概念，是不可分割的伦理和美学出现。本文通过考察al-Ghazālī思想中伦理与美学的融合，论证美学对al-Ghazālī的意义，尽管他对类比和感性的矛盾态度。
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340022
Muhammad U. Faruque
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340048
Atif Khalil
From the origins of Islamic history, humility (khushūʿ/tawāḍuʿ) has occupied a central place in Muslim piety. This has been in large part due to its defining role in the Qurʾān and ḥadīths, and no less because it stands as the opposite of pride (kibr)—the cardinal sin of both Iblīs and Pharaoh in Scripture. By drawing on the literature of Sufism or taṣawwuf from its formative period to the 20th century—spanning the writings of such figures as al-Makkī (d. 386/996), al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1072), Ibn al-ʿArabī (d. 638/1240), Rūmī (d. 672/1273), al-Shaʿrānī (d. 973/1565), al-Darqāwī (d. 1239/1823), and al-Sharnūbī (d. 1348/1929)—the article examines the defining characteristics of this virtue, its marks or signs, and the dangers that lie in its embodiment. In the process, we shall see how humility occupies a place somewhere in between pride, conceit, and self-admiration, on the one hand, and self-loathing, self-denigration, and outright self-hatred, on the other. Although humility is, in theory, to be exercised towards both God and other human beings, the precise nature of its embodiment, as we might expect, varies in relation to both. The article ends with an epilogue on what it means to transcend humility altogether.
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340044
Z. Ayubi
Historically, texts of the Islamic intellectual tradition characterised the ideal Muslim by exclusively referring to men and their concerns. Only recently have scholars of Islam begun to engage in critical study of the category of masculinity. This essay focuses on theories and methodologies of studying masculinity and manhood in premodern Islamic ethics. I demonstrate the gains to be made from gender-critical study of masculinity by way of consolidating approaches scholars have taken and arguing for feminist reasons and methodologies for unpacking male normativity. Because premodern Islamic ethics texts across multiple genres of the scriptural and intellectual tradition presume male readers and subjects, we must take male normativity, the assumption that Muslim ethics is for men, male bodies and practiced by persons marked by maleness, as our critical starting point.
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340045
Cyrus Ali Zargar
While Sufi writings have largely depicted futuwwa as the selfless virtue of upright young men, there has been, throughout Islam’s intellectual history, an underlying current characterised by brave rebelliousness, a current tied to the virtue’s complex relationship with urban fraternal societies. This paper investigates Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn ʿArabī’s (d. 638/1240) deliberate response to futuwwa’s implications of recalcitrance. Making a case for a law-abiding variety of the virtue, Ibn ʿArabī builds a theoretical frame in which this manly trait, one of consideration and altruism, mimics divine attributes, especially a divine calculating wisdom. In doing so, Ibn ʿArabī performs a role that Jeff Mitchell describes as the prerogative of noble elites, historically speaking, namely, the social construction of virtue. As is argued here, while Ibn ʿArabī makes a careful case for a law-abiding futuwwa, the lingering resonances of the virtue’s gangster associations indicate that social influence is, to a degree, reciprocal. That is, while Ibn ʿArabī’s framing of futuwwa makes a detailed and metaphysically-substantiated case for law-abidingness, his argument also suggests, however implicitly, that the virtue cannot completely escape its non-elite outlaw framework.
虽然苏菲派的著作在很大程度上把未来战描绘成正直年轻人的无私美德，但在整个伊斯兰思想史上，一直存在着一种以勇敢叛逆为特征的潜在潮流，这种潮流与这种美德与城市兄弟社会的复杂关系密切相关。本文研究了Muḥyī al- d n伊本·阿拉比(公元638/1240年)对未来战争的反抗含义的深思熟虑的回应。为了论证守法的各种美德，伊本·阿拉比建立了一个理论框架，在这个框架中，这种男性特质，一种体贴和利他主义，模仿了神圣的属性，尤其是神圣的计算智慧。在这样做的过程中，伊本·阿拉伯文扮演了一个角色，杰夫·米切尔将其描述为贵族精英的特权，从历史上讲，即美德的社会建构。正如本文所论述的那样，尽管伊本·阿拉比对未来的守法行为做了细致的论证，但这种美德与黑帮的联系所产生的挥之不去的共鸣表明，在某种程度上，社会影响是相互的。也就是说，虽然伊本·阿拉伯文对“未来”的描述为“守法”提供了一个详细的、形而上的实证案例，但他的论点也暗示，无论多么含蓄，这种美德不能完全逃脱其非精英的“非法”框架。
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340047
Cyrus Ali Zargar
Recent interest in virtue ethics has led to increased interdisciplinary and interreligious lines of inquiry, moving away from a focus on Aristotelian approaches to less-studied, often non-Eurocentric ones, including the study of Asian religions (e.g., Seok 2017). In Islamic studies, research in ethics has largely centred on matters pertaining to law and meta-ethics (especially in theology), on account of a perception of Islamic virtue ethics as largely a derivation of Greek practical philosophy (e.g., Hourani 1985). Recent studies on virtue ethics— many of which have been reviewed in this issue—have tried to bridge this gap, and for good reason: Islamic writings on the refinement of human character traits (tahdhīb al-akhlāq) often present original perspectives of great relevance for ethicists today. It is, moreover, at the meeting place of the study of gender and virtue ethics that Islamic thought displays a trajectory of development that can perhaps inform “world philosophy” more broadly. Especially in its conception of “manliness” (murūʾa or muruwwa) or “youngmanliness” ( futuwwa) as a virtue, one of particular significance to Sufism, Islamic virtue ethics captures the paradoxes of having developed a rich vocabulary of moral perfection applicable in contemporary contexts, while also doing so in ways that fix gender norms. It is with that in mind that the articles in this special issue respond to one of three themes, tied together by an original conference on the topic of futuwwa in Doha, hosted by Hamad Bin Khalifa University’s Research Center for Islamic Legislation and Ethics (CILE) in November 2019, where five of the nine authors in this collection presented earlier drafts. Those themes are (1) futuwwa (“youngmanliness” or “chivalry”), especially in premodern Sufi texts; (2) masculinity and male normativity in premodern Islamic texts, especially Sufi texts, as seen through gender critical theories; and (3) virtue ethics in classical Islamic writings, including that of Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) and Sufi authors. Futuwwa presents a fascinating case for the relationship between norms, gender, and Islamic programs of piety. Many of the authors here take an interest in the way failure to live up to standards of renunciation qualifies as unmanly behaviour, in contrast to the behaviour of a “youngman” ( fatā). As the epitome of proper manly behaviour, futuwwa was something much more than merely a virtue for the specialists, that is, the spiritual elite and their trainees: It became
最近对美德伦理的兴趣导致跨学科和跨宗教的探究线的增加，从关注亚里士多德的方法转向研究较少的，通常是非欧洲中心的方法，包括对亚洲宗教的研究(例如，Seok 2017)。在伊斯兰研究中，伦理学的研究主要集中在与法律和元伦理学(尤其是神学)有关的问题上，因为人们认为伊斯兰美德伦理学在很大程度上是希腊实践哲学的衍生(例如，Hourani 1985)。最近关于美德伦理的研究——其中许多已经在本期中进行了回顾——试图弥合这一差距，并且有充分的理由:关于人类性格特征提炼的伊斯兰著作(tahdhh b al-akhlāq)经常为今天的伦理学家提供具有重大意义的原创观点。此外，正是在研究性别和美德伦理的交汇处，伊斯兰思想展示了一种发展轨迹，或许可以更广泛地为“世界哲学”提供信息。特别是在其将“男子气概”(murunaa或muruwwa)或“年轻男子气概”(futuwwa)作为美德的概念中，这对苏菲主义具有特别重要的意义之一，伊斯兰美德伦理学抓住了发展出适用于当代背景的道德完美的丰富词汇的悖论，同时也以固定性别规范的方式这样做。正是考虑到这一点，本期特刊中的文章回应了三个主题之一，这些主题由哈马德·本·哈利法大学伊斯兰立法与伦理研究中心(CILE)于2019年11月在多哈主办的关于未来战争主题的原始会议联系在一起，本系列的9位作者中有5位介绍了早期的草稿。这些主题是:(1)未来之战(“年轻”或“骑士精神”)，尤其是在前现代的苏菲文本中;(2)从性别批判理论看前现代伊斯兰文本，特别是苏菲文本中的男性气质和男性规范;(3)经典伊斯兰著作中的美德伦理，包括abui Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī(公元505/1111年)和苏菲派作家的著作。Futuwwa为规范、性别和伊斯兰虔诚计划之间的关系提供了一个引人入胜的案例。这里的许多作者都感兴趣的是，与“年轻人”(fatā)的行为相比，未能达到放弃的标准被认为是没有男子气概的行为。作为适当男子气概行为的缩影，未来战不仅仅是专家(即精神精英和他们的学员)的一种美德:它变得
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340049
Brittany Landorf
This study examines the logics of masculinity, manliness, and the corporeal male body in shaykh Muḥammad al-ʿArabī ibn Aḥmad al-Darqāwī al-Ḥasanī’s (d. 1239/1823) Majmūʿ Rasāʾil (“Collection of Epistles”). It argues that al-Darqāwī’s Rasāʾil constructed a prescriptive pious masculinity defined by mastery of the body and self, practical acts of ascetic devotion and humility, the hierarchical relationship between a Sufi master and his disciples, and the denigration of normative masculine virtues and behaviours. While al-Darqāwī instructed his followers to practice tajrīd, or divestment from the material world, and to eschew the habits of the men of murūʾa, this act did not seek to completely transcend the masculine body. Rather, his understanding of prescriptive pious masculinity was centred in embodied ascetic acts which created an analogous relationship between the physical act of purifying the corporeal body with the disciplining of the self (nafs). Mastering the body and the self, al-Darqāwī wrote, would lead to both growing near to God as well as, importantly, his Sufi followers’ mastery over other men, their wives and children, and even the natural environment. Al-Darqāwī’s Rasāʾil highlight the tension between Sufism as a spiritual and mystical path that seems to transcend gender hierarchies with its imbrication in epistemologies, ontologies, and cosmologies shaped by a masculine way of being in the world.
本研究考察了谢赫Muḥammad al- al- arabi ibn Aḥmad al-Darqāwī al- -Ḥasanī ' s(1239/1823年)《信札集》中男性气质、男子气概和肉体男性身体的逻辑。它认为al-Darqāwī的拉斯哈伊尔构建了一种规范的虔诚的男子气概，定义为对身体和自我的掌握，苦行僧的奉献和谦卑的实际行为，苏菲大师和他的门徒之间的等级关系，以及对规范的男性美德和行为的诋毁。虽然al-Darqāwī指示他的追随者练习tajrj ā d，或从物质世界中解脱出来，并避免穆尔纳男人的习惯，但这种行为并没有寻求完全超越男性的身体。相反，他对规范的虔诚男子气概的理解集中在具体的苦行行为中，这种行为在净化肉体的物理行为与自律(nafs)之间创造了类似的关系。al-Darqāwī写道，对身体和自我的掌控，不仅会让他更接近真主，更重要的是，他的苏菲派追随者也能掌控其他人、他们的妻子和孩子，甚至自然环境。Al-Darqāwī的rasu æ h ā il强调了苏菲主义作为一种精神和神秘的道路之间的紧张关系，这种道路似乎超越了性别等级，它在认识论、本体论和宇宙论中形成了一种男性化的存在方式。
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340043
Mukhtar H. Ali
This paper investigates the Sufi concept of futuwwa (spiritual chivalry) in ʿAbdallāh Anṣārī al-Harawī’s (d. 481/1089) classic manual of spiritual wayfaring, Manāzil al-Sāʾirīn (“Stations of the Wayfarers”). After briefly taking stock of the earliest statements on futuwwa cited in al-Qushayrī’s (d. 465/1073) Risāla, we take a closer look at the Manāzil’s commentarial tradition, offering a complete translation of both Anṣārī’s chapter on the subject and ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Kāshānī’s (d. 731/1330) commentary. In Anṣārī’s view, there are three aspects to futuwwa. The first aspect is in relation to oneself, the second is in relation to others, and the third is in relation to God. Futuwwa in relation to oneself is to accept trials and tribulations in stride. With respect to others, it is to hold oneself but not others accountable, seeing outward injuries as inward blessings. With respect to one’s relation to God, it is to abandon means and ends, relying on God alone through the heart’s reception, not the intellect’s endeavour. The discussion section offers an ontological-ethical investigation through a close reading of the text and its commentary, then offers a broader perspective on futuwwa, which is tantamount to the noblest character traits (makārim al-akhlāq). In the final analysis, futuwwa symbolises the quality of the spiritual warrior who conquers his lower self to attain the makārim al-akhlāq.
本文研究了苏菲派在Abdallāh Anṣārī al- harawi (d. 481/1089)经典精神旅行手册Manāzil al- sahu irirn(“旅行者的车站”)中关于未来骑士(精神骑士)的概念。在简要地评估了al- qushayr ' s (d. 465/1073) Risāla中引用的关于未来战争的最早陈述之后，我们仔细研究了Manāzil的评论传统，提供了Anṣārī关于该主题的章节和al- Abd al-Razzāq al-Kāshānī (d. 731/1330)评论的完整翻译。在Anṣārī看来，未来战争有三个方面。第一个方面是与自己的关系，第二个是与他人的关系，第三个方面是与上帝的关系。未来与自己的关系是从容地接受考验和磨难。尊重他人，就是对自己负责，而不是对他人负责，把外在的伤害视为内心的祝福。关于人与上帝的关系，它是放弃手段和目的，只依靠上帝通过心灵的接受，而不是智力的努力。讨论部分通过对文本及其评论的仔细阅读提供了本体论-伦理调查，然后提供了对未来的更广阔的视角，这相当于最高尚的性格特征(makārim al-akhlāq)。归根到底，“未来战士”象征着战胜低级自我，获得makārim al-akhlāq的精神战士的品质。
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Pub Date : 2020-12-15DOI: 10.1163/24685542-12340042
Yousef Casewit
Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī’s (d. 505/1111) al-Maqṣad al-Asnā fī Sharḥ Maʿānī Asmāʾ Allāh al-Ḥusnā (“The Highest Aim in Explaining the Meanings of God’s Most Beautiful Names”) is more than just a commentary on the ninety-nine names of God. In setting out to expound on a virtue ethical theory of the divine names, the Maqṣad in effect amounts to a sustained theological meditation upon one of the most fundamental paradoxes of monotheism: how to locate and affirm both divine incomparability (tanzīh) and comparability (tashbīh). In order to avoid any semblance of theological immanentism, or “the affirmation of God’s comparability” (tashbīh), al-Ghazālī begins by positing that an unbridgeable chasm, or irreducible “disparity” (tafāwut), separates the Lord from the servant. This chasm accounts for a disconnect not only between God’s unqualified Essence and the human being, but also between the transcendent meanings (maʿānī) that reside in the Essence and our limited apprehension of those transcendent meanings in the mind. At the same time, he insists that this chasm does not annul the ethical relevance and ontological reality of the attributes (taʿṭīl). Rather, the latter are somehow comparable (tashbīh) and do serve as prototype for human ethical conduct. In addressing this apparent paradox, al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad exudes a palpable theological anxiety. This article explores the ways in which he addresses this theological conundrum by grounding his treatise in Ashʿarī theology and Sufi ethics. It closely analyses his cautious use of diction, hyper-systematised exegetical methodology, and staunch commitment to a set of hermeneutical principles which serve to undergird his virtue ethical theory of the divine names. Later generations of commentators picked up on al-Ghazālī’s theological anxiety, and critiqued the work for excessive immanentism (tashbīh), excessive transcendentalism (tanzīh), or excessive hermeneutical systematisation (takalluf).
abir Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī ' s (d. 505/1111) al-Maqṣad al- asnā f ' s sharghama ' s ānī Asmā al-Ḥusnā(“解释上帝最美丽的名字的意义的最高目标”)不仅仅是对上帝的九十九个名字的评论。在开始阐述神圣名字的美德伦理理论时，Maqṣad实际上相当于对一神教最基本的悖论之一的持续神学冥想:如何定位和肯定神圣的不可比比性(tanz h)和可比性(tashb h)。为了避免任何神学内在主义的假象，或“对上帝的可比性的肯定”(tashb . h)， al-Ghazālī首先假定一个不可逾越的鸿沟，或不可缩小的“差距”(tafāwut)，将主与仆人分开。这种鸿沟不仅说明了上帝的无条件的本质与人之间的脱节，而且说明了存在于本质中的先验意义(ma ā ānī)与我们在头脑中对这些先验意义的有限理解之间的脱节。同时，他坚持认为这种鸿沟并没有取消属性的伦理相关性和本体论现实性(ta ā ṭīl)。相反，后者在某种程度上具有可比性(tashb ? h)，并且确实充当了人类道德行为的原型。在解决这个明显的悖论时，al-Ghazālī的Maqṣad流露出一种明显的神学焦虑。这篇文章探讨了他如何解决这个神学难题，将他的论文根植于阿什·阿尔神学和苏菲伦理学。它密切分析了他对措辞的谨慎使用，超系统化的训诂方法，以及对一套解释学原则的坚定承诺，这些原则有助于巩固他关于神名的美德伦理理论。后世的评论家注意到al-Ghazālī的神学焦虑，并批评作品过度的内在主义(tashb ā h)，过度的超验主义(tanc ā h)或过度的解释学系统化(takalluf)。
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Pub Date : 2020-09-30DOI: 10.30659/IJIBE.5.2.90-99
Nihayatu Aslamatis Sholihah, A. Fahrullah
The aim of this research is to test the effect of customer relationship management (data and information, human resources, process, and technology) towards muzakki loyalty case study Yatim Mandiri Surabaya. this research was conducted with an associative quantitative approach. Number of samples that used in this research is 100 peoples who is active muzakki ini Yatim mandiri Surbaya and use purposive sampling technique. This research use a questionnare that calculates with Likert scale and analyzed with SPSS 23 version. The result of this research indicated that customer relationship management varible has significant effect and positive of muzakki loyalty. Based on the partial test result indicated that customer relationship management has partial effect of muzakki loyalty, and �based on the coefficient of determination test result, indicated that customer relationship management variable has a big impact as 33,7% of muzakki loyalty.
本研究的目的是测试客户关系管理(数据和信息、人力资源、流程和技术)对muzakki忠诚度的影响，案例研究Yatim Mandiri Surabaya。本研究采用关联定量方法进行。在本研究中使用的样本数量是100人的活跃muzakki ini Yatim mandiri Surbaya和使用有目的的抽样技术。本研究采用李克特量表计算问卷，并采用SPSS 23版进行分析。本研究结果显示，顾客关系管理变量对食材忠诚有显著的正向影响。根据部分检验结果表明，客户关系管理对食材忠诚有部分影响;根据决定系数检验结果表明，客户关系管理变量对食材忠诚的影响较大，为33.7%。
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