Pub Date : 2025-02-28DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100298
H. Bakhtiari , M. Farvizi , M.R. Rahimipour , A. Malekan
This study investigates the hot corrosion behavior of transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding in Hastelloy X (HX) subjected to a molten salt environment of Na2SO4–V2O5 at 900°C, examining various bonding times of 5, 20, 80, 320, and 640 minutes. The samples were bonded at 1070°C, and their corrosion products along with microstructural features were examined. The microstructural analysis confirmed the presence of primary eutectic phases in the joints, including Ni-rich borides and silicides, Ni-Si eutectics, and several chromium-rich borides. Samples bonded for 20 and 80 min showed inferior hot corrosion resistance. Conversely, the sample that was bonded for 320 minutes exhibited improved resistance because of a more uniform distribution of alloy elements and lower boride concentrations at the interface. During the hot corrosion tests, initially, the TLP surface is covered by a dense Cr2O3 and NiO layer. After 20 h of hot corrosion, due to the reaction of oxide layers with vanadium, NaVO3 forms, while sulfur diffusion leads to the evolution of internal sulfides based on Ni, Cr, and Mo. The presence of NaVO3 and SO3, along with the reduction of Cr2O3, significantly affects the hot corrosion resistance over prolonged exposure.
{"title":"Hot corrosion mechanism in transient liquid phase bonded HX superalloy: Effect of bonding time","authors":"H. Bakhtiari , M. Farvizi , M.R. Rahimipour , A. Malekan","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100298","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100298","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the hot corrosion behavior of transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding in Hastelloy X (HX) subjected to a molten salt environment of Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>–V<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> at 900°C, examining various bonding times of 5, 20, 80, 320, and 640 minutes. The samples were bonded at 1070°C, and their corrosion products along with microstructural features were examined. The microstructural analysis confirmed the presence of primary eutectic phases in the joints, including Ni-rich borides and silicides, Ni-Si eutectics, and several chromium-rich borides. Samples bonded for 20 and 80 min showed inferior hot corrosion resistance. Conversely, the sample that was bonded for 320 minutes exhibited improved resistance because of a more uniform distribution of alloy elements and lower boride concentrations at the interface. During the hot corrosion tests, initially, the TLP surface is covered by a dense Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> and NiO layer. After 20 h of hot corrosion, due to the reaction of oxide layers with vanadium, NaVO<sub>3</sub> forms, while sulfur diffusion leads to the evolution of internal sulfides based on Ni, Cr, and Mo. The presence of NaVO<sub>3</sub> and SO<sub>3</sub>, along with the reduction of Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, significantly affects the hot corrosion resistance over prolonged exposure.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100298"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143580239","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The effects of chemical surface treatment of aluminum sheet and tool rotational speed (in the range of 300–1100 rpm) were studied on the macro/microstructure and mechanical behavior of friction stir lap joints between aluminum-magnesium aluminum alloy and a polypropylene composite containing 20 wt.% talc and 10 wt.% elastomer. Macrostructural studies of the joints revealed the formation of macroscopic mechanical locks between the aluminum and polymer base sheets, characterized by aluminum pieces resembling anchors penetrating the polymer substrate. The size of the anchors decreased as the rotational speed increased, and their orientation changed from being parallel with the interface of the aluminum/composite sheets to being perpendicular, and then facing the opposite direction. The larger anchors, as well as those penetrating relatively perpendicular into the polymer composite substrate, provided the joints with the highest fracture load and absorbed energy up to peak load at the intermediate tool rotational speeds of 700 and 900 rpm. Microstructural analysis demonstrated that chemical surface treatment with a solution of HCl and FeCl3 in distilled water significantly increased the surface roughness of the aluminum sheet (by a factor of ∼4) and created numerous microscopic voids on its surface. The molten polymer formed during welding penetrated into these voids, creating numerous microscopic mechanical locks. These locks substantially enhanced the tensile-shear performance of the joints, resulting in up to ∼80 % higher fracture load and ∼380 % higher absorbed energy compared to joints without surface treatment of the aluminum. The influence of the morphology of mechanical locks on the location and mode of joint fracture was also investigated.
{"title":"Aluminum surface treatment and process optimization: Boosting mechanical performance in aluminum/polypropylene composite friction stir lap joints","authors":"Mojtaba Movahedi, Mahtab Mohsenirad, Ashkaan Ozlati","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100297","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100297","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The effects of chemical surface treatment of aluminum sheet and tool rotational speed (in the range of 300–1100 rpm) were studied on the macro/microstructure and mechanical behavior of friction stir lap joints between aluminum-magnesium aluminum alloy and a polypropylene composite containing 20 wt.% talc and 10 wt.% elastomer. Macrostructural studies of the joints revealed the formation of macroscopic mechanical locks between the aluminum and polymer base sheets, characterized by aluminum pieces resembling anchors penetrating the polymer substrate. The size of the anchors decreased as the rotational speed increased, and their orientation changed from being parallel with the interface of the aluminum/composite sheets to being perpendicular, and then facing the opposite direction. The larger anchors, as well as those penetrating relatively perpendicular into the polymer composite substrate, provided the joints with the highest fracture load and absorbed energy up to peak load at the intermediate tool rotational speeds of 700 and 900 rpm. Microstructural analysis demonstrated that chemical surface treatment with a solution of HCl and FeCl<sub>3</sub> in distilled water significantly increased the surface roughness of the aluminum sheet (by a factor of ∼4) and created numerous microscopic voids on its surface. The molten polymer formed during welding penetrated into these voids, creating numerous microscopic mechanical locks. These locks substantially enhanced the tensile-shear performance of the joints, resulting in up to ∼80 % higher fracture load and ∼380 % higher absorbed energy compared to joints without surface treatment of the aluminum. The influence of the morphology of mechanical locks on the location and mode of joint fracture was also investigated.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100297"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143526766","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Laser hybrid manufacturing combines Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) and Laser Melt Deposition (LMD) to overcome LPBF's size constraints and LMD's lower geometric precision. This study explores the feasibility of hybrid LPBF-LMD processing for Inconel 718, focusing on interface properties and mechanical performance. Hybrid samples were first fabricated using LPBF, followed by LMD, with LMD process parameters optimized using a second-order parabolic model. Two LPBF variants as-built and solution-annealed were evaluated to assess their influence on interface characteristics. Microstructural analysis revealed a fine-grained LPBF region and a coarser LMD region with distinct texture, both demonstrating defect-free metallurgical bonding. Microhardness measurements showed a gradient at the LPBF interface, increasing from 346 ± 20 HV at the build plate to 410 ± 18 HV, influenced by solidification and thermal gradients. The LMD region exhibited a lower hardness of 314 ± 12 HV, correlating with its coarser microstructure. Tensile tests showed that as-built LPBF-LMD samples had higher elongation (26.76 ± 2 %) compared to solution-annealed samples (8.29 ± 2 %), with the LPBF region contributing more to ductility. These findings provide key insights into optimizing hybrid LPBF-LMD processing for high-performance components, enabling improved repair strategies and multifunctional part design in aerospace, energy, and other critical applications.
{"title":"Feasibility study of advanced manufacturing processes: Integrating LPBF and LMD for Inconel 718","authors":"Pinku Yadav , Olivier Rigo , Corinne Arvieu , Eric Lacoste","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100296","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100296","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Laser hybrid manufacturing combines Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) and Laser Melt Deposition (LMD) to overcome LPBF's size constraints and LMD's lower geometric precision. This study explores the feasibility of hybrid LPBF-LMD processing for Inconel 718, focusing on interface properties and mechanical performance. Hybrid samples were first fabricated using LPBF, followed by LMD, with LMD process parameters optimized using a second-order parabolic model. Two LPBF variants as-built and solution-annealed were evaluated to assess their influence on interface characteristics. Microstructural analysis revealed a fine-grained LPBF region and a coarser LMD region with distinct texture, both demonstrating defect-free metallurgical bonding. Microhardness measurements showed a gradient at the LPBF interface, increasing from 346 ± 20 HV at the build plate to 410 ± 18 HV, influenced by solidification and thermal gradients. The LMD region exhibited a lower hardness of 314 ± 12 HV, correlating with its coarser microstructure. Tensile tests showed that as-built LPBF-LMD samples had higher elongation (26.76 ± 2 %) compared to solution-annealed samples (8.29 ± 2 %), with the LPBF region contributing more to ductility. These findings provide key insights into optimizing hybrid LPBF-LMD processing for high-performance components, enabling improved repair strategies and multifunctional part design in aerospace, energy, and other critical applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100296"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143464928","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-18DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100295
E. Ajenifuja , A.P.I. Popoola , O. Popoola
Duplex stainless steel (DSS) possesses wide range of useful metallographic and mechanical properties; hence the material has been used in different forms of application namely in chloride present environments such as desalination plants and cooling water services such as conventional and nuclear power stations. However, this material has its limitations as it's susceptible to cracking particularly stress corrosion cracking or pitting corrosion and can exhibit poor metallurgical properties such as microstructures and phase containing unbalanced proportions of ferrite and austenite. In this study, Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) is compared with Shielded Metal Arch Welding (SMAW) process, in terms of their effects on the structural and mechanical properties and performances of DSS weldments. Analysis of the microstructure and phases were carried out. Also, the tensile, microhardness, impact and fracture properties were determined with relevant techniques. The results indicated that SMAW and FCAW welding processes differentially influence the structural and mechanical properties of the DSS weldments, consisting of the part of base material, weld and the heat affected zone (HAZ). The weld prepared using the SMAW process exhibited superior hardness characteristics at 309 HV and achieved the highest impact energy absorption of 145.92 J. In contrast, the FCAW prepared weldment exhibited the highest tensile strength, reaching 282.30 kN maximum load.
{"title":"Comparative analysis of structural and mechanical properties of duplex stainless steel (DSS) weldments prepared by flux core arc welding and shielded metal arch welding processes","authors":"E. Ajenifuja , A.P.I. Popoola , O. Popoola","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100295","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100295","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Duplex stainless steel (DSS) possesses wide range of useful metallographic and mechanical properties; hence the material has been used in different forms of application namely in chloride present environments such as desalination plants and cooling water services such as conventional and nuclear power stations. However, this material has its limitations as it's susceptible to cracking particularly stress corrosion cracking or pitting corrosion and can exhibit poor metallurgical properties such as microstructures and phase containing unbalanced proportions of ferrite and austenite. In this study, Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) is compared with Shielded Metal Arch Welding (SMAW) process, in terms of their effects on the structural and mechanical properties and performances of DSS weldments. Analysis of the microstructure and phases were carried out. Also, the tensile, microhardness, impact and fracture properties were determined with relevant techniques. The results indicated that SMAW and FCAW welding processes differentially influence the structural and mechanical properties of the DSS weldments, consisting of the part of base material, weld and the heat affected zone (HAZ). The weld prepared using the SMAW process exhibited superior hardness characteristics at 309 HV and achieved the highest impact energy absorption of 145.92 <em>J</em>. In contrast, the FCAW prepared weldment exhibited the highest tensile strength, reaching 282.30 kN maximum load.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100295"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143453796","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-15DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100292
Aravind Babu, Emiliano Trodini, José Luis Galán Argumedo, Ian M. Richardson, Marcel J.M. Hermans
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of high-strength steel (HSS) has gained significant attention for structural applications. Achieving precise control over the manufacturing process and understanding the relationship between process parameters and the resulting material characteristics is crucial for optimizing the performance of these steel walls to achieve tailored properties. The present study was performed to comprehend the influence of process parameters on the microstructure and properties of wire arc additively manufactured (WAAM) high-strength steel (HSS) thin-wall structures. Multi-layer thin walls of ER110S-G high-strength steel comprising 30 layers were deposited bidirectionally and were fabricated with different travel speeds and wire-feed rates. Geometrical analysis conducted on samples indicates that achieving minimal surface waviness for single-bead thin walls depends on adjusting wire feed rates and travel speeds. Specifically, lower wire feed rates are found to be more effective in minimizing waviness when dealing with single-bead thin walls (thickness 5 mm). Conversely, lower travel speeds are preferred for reducing surface irregularities in walls fabricated at high deposition rates for thicker single-bead walls (thickness 8 mm). Cooling rate analysis from midpoints of the 5th, 15th and 25th layers of each sample indicates high cooling rates for low heat input (HI=178 J/mm) samples even for the layer. Microstructural characterization of the samples suggests an increase in acicular ferrite and martensite volume fraction with lower heat input. Additionally, microstructural quantification with EBSD reveals smaller grain sizes and higher Kernel average misorientation for low heat input deposits. Mechanical properties like hardness and tensile strength display an increasing trend with decreasing heat input while elongation to fracture is reduced under the same conditions. Furthermore, anisotropic behaviour is observed in tensile strength and elongation to fracture between building and deposition directions due to the presence of microstructural inhomogeneities.
{"title":"Correlating geometry, microstructure and properties of High Strength Steel thin wall structures fabricated with WAAM","authors":"Aravind Babu, Emiliano Trodini, José Luis Galán Argumedo, Ian M. Richardson, Marcel J.M. Hermans","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100292","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100292","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of high-strength steel (HSS) has gained significant attention for structural applications. Achieving precise control over the manufacturing process and understanding the relationship between process parameters and the resulting material characteristics is crucial for optimizing the performance of these steel walls to achieve tailored properties. The present study was performed to comprehend the influence of process parameters on the microstructure and properties of wire arc additively manufactured (WAAM) high-strength steel (HSS) thin-wall structures. Multi-layer thin walls of ER110S-G high-strength steel comprising 30 layers were deposited bidirectionally and were fabricated with different travel speeds and wire-feed rates. Geometrical analysis conducted on samples indicates that achieving minimal surface waviness for single-bead thin walls depends on adjusting wire feed rates and travel speeds. Specifically, lower wire feed rates are found to be more effective in minimizing waviness when dealing with single-bead thin walls (thickness <span><math><mo><</mo></math></span> 5 mm). Conversely, lower travel speeds are preferred for reducing surface irregularities in walls fabricated at high deposition rates for thicker single-bead walls (thickness <span><math><mo>></mo></math></span> 8 mm). Cooling rate analysis from midpoints of the 5th, 15th and 25th layers of each sample indicates high cooling rates for low heat input (HI=178 J/mm) samples even for the <span><math><mrow><mn>25</mn><mi>th</mi></mrow></math></span> layer. Microstructural characterization of the samples suggests an increase in acicular ferrite and martensite volume fraction with lower heat input. Additionally, microstructural quantification with EBSD reveals smaller grain sizes and higher Kernel average misorientation for low heat input deposits. Mechanical properties like hardness and tensile strength display an increasing trend with decreasing heat input while elongation to fracture is reduced under the same conditions. Furthermore, anisotropic behaviour is observed in tensile strength and elongation to fracture between building and deposition directions due to the presence of microstructural inhomogeneities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100292"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143464927","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-11DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100294
Hesam Mehdikhani , Amir Mostafapour , Behzad Binesh
Naval brass (C46500), due to the presence of tin in this alloy, it exhibits high resistance to atmospheric and aqueous corrosion. This type of brass is widely used in various industries, including marine applications, electrical components, etc. The C70600 copper-nickel alloy, due to the formation of a solid solution, maintains high ductility while increasing tensile strength. High resistance to seawater corrosion, attributed to significant amounts of manganese and iron, are among the key characteristics of this alloy. The joining of these alloys in marine applications are required. Considering the formation of solid solutions and intermetallic compounds and their impact on mechanical properties, controlling their amounts is crucial for achieving optimal results. Brazing is known as an effective method to join these base materials. Since temperature and time are two critical parameters in brazing, influencing the formation of precipitates, this study focuses on optimizing these conditions to achieve desirable microstructural and mechanical properties. The brazing process was performed under 16 different conditions including 650, 680, 710, and 740 °C for 1, 5, 15, and 30 mins. To study the microstructure of joints, and the related phase transformations in the joint region, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used. Mechanical properties of the samples were evaluated through strength testing and micro hardness measurements. The results indicate that with increasing temperature and duration of the joining process, the width of the thermally solidified zone decreases due to the increased diffusion rate, while the width of the isothermal solidification zone increases. Moreover, increasing the brazing time promotes phase segregation. The highest strength, measured at 106.4 MPa, was achieved for the sample joined at 710 °C for 15 mins, with the fracture surface displaying a mixed ductile-brittle mode.
{"title":"Mechanical properties and microstructure of the C70600 copper-nickel alloy and C46500 brass joint using brazing technique","authors":"Hesam Mehdikhani , Amir Mostafapour , Behzad Binesh","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100294","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100294","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Naval brass (C46500), due to the presence of tin in this alloy, it exhibits high resistance to atmospheric and aqueous corrosion. This type of brass is widely used in various industries, including marine applications, electrical components, etc. The C70600 copper-nickel alloy, due to the formation of a solid solution, maintains high ductility while increasing tensile strength. High resistance to seawater corrosion, attributed to significant amounts of manganese and iron, are among the key characteristics of this alloy. The joining of these alloys in marine applications are required. Considering the formation of solid solutions and intermetallic compounds and their impact on mechanical properties, controlling their amounts is crucial for achieving optimal results. Brazing is known as an effective method to join these base materials. Since temperature and time are two critical parameters in brazing, influencing the formation of precipitates, this study focuses on optimizing these conditions to achieve desirable microstructural and mechanical properties. The brazing process was performed under 16 different conditions including 650, 680, 710, and 740 °C for 1, 5, 15, and 30 mins. To study the microstructure of joints, and the related phase transformations in the joint region, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used. Mechanical properties of the samples were evaluated through strength testing and micro hardness measurements. The results indicate that with increasing temperature and duration of the joining process, the width of the thermally solidified zone decreases due to the increased diffusion rate, while the width of the isothermal solidification zone increases. Moreover, increasing the brazing time promotes phase segregation. The highest strength, measured at 106.4 MPa, was achieved for the sample joined at 710 °C for 15 mins, with the fracture surface displaying a mixed ductile-brittle mode.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100294"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143387546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-06DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100293
Mohamed I.A. Habba , Mohamed M.Z. Ahmed
Friction stir welding (FSW) has emerged as a promising technique for joining dissimilar aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) alloys, which are increasingly used in various industries owing to their unique properties. However, significant differences in the physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of Al and Cu pose challenges for achieving high-quality joints. This review comprehensively examines strategies for enhancing the joint quality of FSWed Al-Cu dissimilar alloys. The microstructural evolution and intermetallic compound (IMC) formation at the Al-Cu interface during FSW are discussed in detail. The effects of process parameters, such as tool rotation speed, traverse speed, and tool geometry, on the mechanical properties and fracture behavior of the joints were analyzed. Furthermore, various strategies for improving joint quality are reviewed, including process modification through optimized tool offsetting and material positioning, ultrasonic-assisted FSW, submerged FSW, stir zone modification using interlayers and reinforcement particles, external cooling and heating techniques, and joint design optimization. The effectiveness of each strategy in refining the microstructure, suppressing detrimental IMC formation, and enhancing the mechanical properties was evaluated based on the findings of previous studies. The research demonstrates that joint quality strongly depends on the precise control of process parameters and material positioning, with tool offsets of 1–2 mm toward the aluminum side consistently producing superior results. Modern assisted techniques have shown remarkable improvements in joint performance, with ultrasonic-assisted FSW and submerged FSW enhancing the tensile strength by up to 42 % through better control of the heat input and intermetallic compound formation. This review focuses on advanced strategies aimed at overcoming these challenges, including ultrasonic-assisted FSW, submerged FSW, and innovative interlayer techniques. Additionally, the review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent developments in process optimization, microstructural refinement, and mechanical property enhancement to achieve high-quality Al-Cu joints and offers guidance for selecting appropriate strategies to meet specific application requirements.
{"title":"Friction stir welding of dissimilar aluminum and copper alloys: A review of strategies for enhancing joint quality","authors":"Mohamed I.A. Habba , Mohamed M.Z. Ahmed","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100293","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100293","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Friction stir welding (FSW) has emerged as a promising technique for joining dissimilar aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) alloys, which are increasingly used in various industries owing to their unique properties. However, significant differences in the physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of Al and Cu pose challenges for achieving high-quality joints. This review comprehensively examines strategies for enhancing the joint quality of FSWed Al-Cu dissimilar alloys. The microstructural evolution and intermetallic compound (IMC) formation at the Al-Cu interface during FSW are discussed in detail. The effects of process parameters, such as tool rotation speed, traverse speed, and tool geometry, on the mechanical properties and fracture behavior of the joints were analyzed. Furthermore, various strategies for improving joint quality are reviewed, including process modification through optimized tool offsetting and material positioning, ultrasonic-assisted FSW, submerged FSW, stir zone modification using interlayers and reinforcement particles, external cooling and heating techniques, and joint design optimization. The effectiveness of each strategy in refining the microstructure, suppressing detrimental IMC formation, and enhancing the mechanical properties was evaluated based on the findings of previous studies. The research demonstrates that joint quality strongly depends on the precise control of process parameters and material positioning, with tool offsets of 1–2 mm toward the aluminum side consistently producing superior results. Modern assisted techniques have shown remarkable improvements in joint performance, with ultrasonic-assisted FSW and submerged FSW enhancing the tensile strength by up to 42 % through better control of the heat input and intermetallic compound formation. This review focuses on advanced strategies aimed at overcoming these challenges, including ultrasonic-assisted FSW, submerged FSW, and innovative interlayer techniques. Additionally, the review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent developments in process optimization, microstructural refinement, and mechanical property enhancement to achieve high-quality Al-Cu joints and offers guidance for selecting appropriate strategies to meet specific application requirements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100293"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-02-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143420437","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a significant solid-state joining technique for metals and polymers, effectively addressing challenges posed by fusion welding. The application of FSW relies on the development of cost-effective, durable tools that consistently produce high-quality welds. The forces and torque generated during welding are critical to this process, which influence weld integrity, process efficiency, and tool longevity. This review explores methodologies for estimating these parameters—analytical, numerical, and experimental—and discusses measurement techniques, including direct and indirect methods. It also examines variations in forces across different FSW types, such as Conventional FSW, Bobbin Tool FSW, and Stationary Shoulder FSW, emphasizing the differences in their operational mechanics. Additionally, the review highlights how process parameters like tool shape, size, tilt angle, and welding speed can be optimized to enhance performance and investigates the use of force measurements for real-time weld monitoring and defect detection, contributing to the reliability of FSW in industrial applications. The results indicate that the use of force measurement for online monitoring of welding processes, particularly concerning welding defects and overall weld quality, has garnered significant attention in recent years. A notable advancement in this field is the implementation of machine learning tools, which enhance the ability to predict potential weld defects and improve overall weld quality. This innovative approach not only streamlines the monitoring process but also contributes to the evolution of FSW technologies, ensuring higher standards of quality and safety in various applications.
{"title":"The role of force and torque in friction stir welding: A detailed review","authors":"Mostafa Akbari , Milad Esfandiar , Amin Abdollahzadeh","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100289","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100289","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a significant solid-state joining technique for metals and polymers, effectively addressing challenges posed by fusion welding. The application of FSW relies on the development of cost-effective, durable tools that consistently produce high-quality welds. The forces and torque generated during welding are critical to this process, which influence weld integrity, process efficiency, and tool longevity. This review explores methodologies for estimating these parameters—analytical, numerical, and experimental—and discusses measurement techniques, including direct and indirect methods. It also examines variations in forces across different FSW types, such as Conventional FSW, Bobbin Tool FSW, and Stationary Shoulder FSW, emphasizing the differences in their operational mechanics. Additionally, the review highlights how process parameters like tool shape, size, tilt angle, and welding speed can be optimized to enhance performance and investigates the use of force measurements for real-time weld monitoring and defect detection, contributing to the reliability of FSW in industrial applications. The results indicate that the use of force measurement for online monitoring of welding processes, particularly concerning welding defects and overall weld quality, has garnered significant attention in recent years. A notable advancement in this field is the implementation of machine learning tools, which enhance the ability to predict potential weld defects and improve overall weld quality. This innovative approach not only streamlines the monitoring process but also contributes to the evolution of FSW technologies, ensuring higher standards of quality and safety in various applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100289"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143350466","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-31DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100290
A. Baghbani Barenji , M.B. Russo , S. Jabar , H.R. Kotadia , D. Ceglarek , K.F. Ayarkwa , J.R. Smith , P. Franciosa
Using a continuous wave (CW) laser with beam oscillation, this study elucidates the impact of passive and active cooling on welding hot-dip galvanised steel-to-aluminium sheets. The work investigates how cooling affects the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) and the behaviour of Zn vapours, both of which are critical factors to the joint strength. IMCs are recognised as the most decisive factor in welding steel to aluminium, while Zn vapours significantly impact welding in a zero part-to-part gap overlap configuration. A 3D finite element method thermal model was employed to correlate the thermal cycles to the metallurgical and mechanical properties. The cooling rate without beam oscillation increased by 34% switching from passive to active cooling, while it was only 2.5% with oscillation present (2.5 mm lateral oscillation). Results revealed that active cooling influences Zn vapours and IMCs differently; faster cooling reduced total IMCs and Fe2Al5 phase and increased joint strength; however, it exacerbated spattering and weld discontinuity due to insufficient time for outgassing the Zn vapours from the molten pool. This adverse effect was more pronounced with beam oscillation due to larger molten pool. The experimental work also showed that despite beam oscillation does enlarge the connection area, the average shear stress was relatively lower compared to the case without oscillation, attributed to the increased thickness of the IMCs. Active cooling with water flow at 10 °C achieved 60% joint efficiency compared to parent aluminium, while beam oscillation reduced this to 54% but with half the strength variation. This highlights the complex, non-linear interplay between IMC formation, Zn vapour outgassing, and the dynamics of the molten pool.
{"title":"Effect of cooling rate on metallurgical and mechanical properties in continuous wave laser welding of hot-dip galvanised steel-to-aluminium sheets in a zero part-to-part gap lap joint configuration","authors":"A. Baghbani Barenji , M.B. Russo , S. Jabar , H.R. Kotadia , D. Ceglarek , K.F. Ayarkwa , J.R. Smith , P. Franciosa","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100290","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100290","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Using a continuous wave (CW) laser with beam oscillation, this study elucidates the impact of passive and active cooling on welding hot-dip galvanised steel-to-aluminium sheets. The work investigates how cooling affects the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) and the behaviour of Zn vapours, both of which are critical factors to the joint strength. IMCs are recognised as the most decisive factor in welding steel to aluminium, while Zn vapours significantly impact welding in a zero part-to-part gap overlap configuration. A 3D finite element method thermal model was employed to correlate the thermal cycles to the metallurgical and mechanical properties. The cooling rate without beam oscillation increased by 34% switching from passive to active cooling, while it was only 2.5% with oscillation present (2.5 mm lateral oscillation). Results revealed that active cooling influences Zn vapours and IMCs differently; faster cooling reduced total IMCs and Fe<sub>2</sub>Al<sub>5</sub> phase and increased joint strength; however, it exacerbated spattering and weld discontinuity due to insufficient time for outgassing the Zn vapours from the molten pool. This adverse effect was more pronounced with beam oscillation due to larger molten pool. The experimental work also showed that despite beam oscillation does enlarge the connection area, the average shear stress was relatively lower compared to the case without oscillation, attributed to the increased thickness of the IMCs. Active cooling with water flow at 10 °C achieved 60% joint efficiency compared to parent aluminium, while beam oscillation reduced this to 54% but with half the strength variation. This highlights the complex, non-linear interplay between IMC formation, Zn vapour outgassing, and the dynamics of the molten pool.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100290"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143350465","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-23DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100288
Kholqillah Ardhian Ilman , Yorihiro Yamashita , Takahiro Kunimine
This study investigates the microstructural characteristics and defect formation in single beads of the CrMnFeCoNi high-entropy alloy (HEA) processed by the multi-beam laser directed energy deposition (MBL-DED). The research aims to understand how the MBL-DED process can effectively control the bead formation with meltpool or without meltpool by leveraging the multi-beam laser focusing position in the MBL-DED system, and maintain the equiatomic balance of the HEA deposited on substrate surfaces by controlling the bead formation without meltpool and addressing potential defects. The formation of meltpool typically leads to mixing between the base material and the deposited HEA bead, altering the equiatomic balance and reducing the alloy's ability to stabilize the solid-solution phase. The multi-beam laser focusing position of the six laser beams of the MBL-DED system was adjusted to 0.5 mm above the substrate surface, with varying laser powers (80–160 W) and scanning speeds (10–40 mm/s). Hereafter, this laser geometry is called as overfocusing position, ∆f, of 0.5 mm. This method shifted the process dynamics from a conventional meltpool formation to a thin reaction layer formation (no-meltpool formation). At a laser power of 140 W and a scanning speed of 30 mm/s, the absence of meltpool was observed. However, at 120 W, bead discontinuity increased with higher scanning speeds. Additionally, higher speeds and lower powers resulted in increased porosity, supported by partially melted and unmelted powder. Microstructural analysis revealed that increasing scanning speeds reduced grain size, transitioning from larger and uniform grains to finer and irregular grains. This research demonstrates the potential of the MBL-DED system in optimizing the HEA powder processing by controlling meltpool formation and mitigating defects, and in contributing to open up a new joining processing technology with less reaction layer through additive manufacturing.
{"title":"Microstructural and defect characterization in single beads of the CrMnFeCoNi high-entropy alloy processed by the multi-beam laser directed energy deposition","authors":"Kholqillah Ardhian Ilman , Yorihiro Yamashita , Takahiro Kunimine","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100288","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100288","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the microstructural characteristics and defect formation in single beads of the CrMnFeCoNi high-entropy alloy (HEA) processed by the multi-beam laser directed energy deposition (MBL-DED). The research aims to understand how the MBL-DED process can effectively control the bead formation with meltpool or without meltpool by leveraging the multi-beam laser focusing position in the MBL-DED system, and maintain the equiatomic balance of the HEA deposited on substrate surfaces by controlling the bead formation without meltpool and addressing potential defects. The formation of meltpool typically leads to mixing between the base material and the deposited HEA bead, altering the equiatomic balance and reducing the alloy's ability to stabilize the solid-solution phase. The multi-beam laser focusing position of the six laser beams of the MBL-DED system was adjusted to 0.5 mm above the substrate surface, with varying laser powers (80–160 W) and scanning speeds (10–40 mm/s). Hereafter, this laser geometry is called as overfocusing position, <em>∆f</em>, of 0.5 mm. This method shifted the process dynamics from a conventional meltpool formation to a thin reaction layer formation (no-meltpool formation). At a laser power of 140 W and a scanning speed of 30 mm/s, the absence of meltpool was observed. However, at 120 W, bead discontinuity increased with higher scanning speeds. Additionally, higher speeds and lower powers resulted in increased porosity, supported by partially melted and unmelted powder. Microstructural analysis revealed that increasing scanning speeds reduced grain size, transitioning from larger and uniform grains to finer and irregular grains. This research demonstrates the potential of the MBL-DED system in optimizing the HEA powder processing by controlling meltpool formation and mitigating defects, and in contributing to open up a new joining processing technology with less reaction layer through additive manufacturing.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100288"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143133083","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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