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Human involvement in autonomous decision-making systems. Lessons learned from three case studies in aviation, social care and road vehicles 人类参与自主决策系统。从航空、社会护理和道路车辆三个案例研究中汲取的经验教训
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-12-20 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1238461
P. Salvini, T. Reinmund, Benjamin Hardin, Keri Grieman, C. Ten Holter, Aaron Johnson, Lars Kunze, Alan Winfield, Marina Jirotka
This paper draws on three case studies to examine some of the challenges and tensions involved in the use of Autonomous Decision-Making Systems (ADMS). In particular, the paper highlights: (i) challenges around the shifting “locale” of the decision, and the associated consequences for stakeholders; (ii) potential implications for stakeholders from regulation such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR); (iii) the different values that stakeholder groups bring to the “decision” question; (iv) how complex pre-existing webs of stakeholders and decision-making authorities may be disrupted or disempowered by the use of an automated system and the lack of evaluation of possible consequences; (v) how ADMS for non-technical users can lead to circumvention of the boundaries of intended system use. We illustrate these challenges through case studies in three domains: adult social care, aviation, and vehicle driver monitoring systems. The paper closes with recommendations for both practice and policy in the deployment of ADMS.
本文通过三个案例研究,探讨了在使用自主决策系统(ADMS)过程中遇到的一些挑战和矛盾。本文特别强调(i) 围绕决策 "地点 "变化的挑战,以及对利益相关者的相关影响;(ii) 《通用数据保护条例》(GDPR)等法规对利益相关者的潜在影响;(iii) 利益相关者群体对 "决策 "问题的不同价值观;(iv) 使用自动化系统以及缺乏对可能后果的评估,会如何扰乱或削弱利益相关者和决策机构之间业已存在的复杂关系网;(v) 非技术用户使用自主决策系统会如何导致规避预期系统使用的界限。我们通过三个领域的案例研究来说明这些挑战:成人社会护理、航空和车辆驾驶员监控系统。最后,本文还提出了在 ADMS 部署方面的实践和政策建议。
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引用次数: 0
Deciphering the maritime diplomatic properties of Malaysia's oil and gas explorations in the South China Sea 解读马来西亚南海油气勘探的海洋外交属性
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-12-19 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1286577
Bama Andika Putra
Studies in maritime diplomacy have treated the development of oil and gas explorations in the South China Sea as taken-for-granted events. On the contrary, this study argues that assessing the maritime diplomatic properties inherent in energy reserve explorations can reveal unique insights, motivations, and significance of maritime diplomatic events. It assesses Malaysia's oil and gas explorations in the Luconia Shoals, informed by the analytical framework of Le Mière's maritime diplomatic properties. Utilizing secondary data from the Asian Maritime Transparency Initiative between 2020 and 2023 related to Malaysia's oil and gas project developments in the Luconia Shoals, this article concludes that the maritime diplomatic events consist of the following characteristics: (1) pre-emptive and sustainment, underlining Malaysia's long-term plan of fulfilling the growing domestic energy demand, (2) explicitness of the messages transmitted to Chinese officials in order to repel any possibilities of adversaries misconstruing Malaysia's actions at sea, and (3) moderate kinetic effect due to the lethal weaponry at the disposal of the hard power assets deployed to handle occurring crisis. Evaluation of Malaysia's maritime diplomatic properties also reveals two worrying conclusions: (1) the existence of reactive events, which can cause disruptions at sea due to the lack of planning related to the actions taken by the Royal Malaysian Navy, and (2) asymmetrical power relations between China and Malaysia, predicted to cause China to continue its power projections at sea and aggravate Malaysian policymakers.
海洋外交研究将南海油气开发视为理所当然的事件。相反,本研究认为,评估能源储备勘探所固有的海洋外交属性可以揭示海洋外交事件的独特见解、动机和意义。本研究以勒米尔的海洋外交属性分析框架为基础,对马来西亚在卢科尼亚浅滩的石油和天然气勘探进行了评估。利用 2020 年至 2023 年间亚洲海事透明度倡议(Asian Maritime Transparency Initiative)中与马来西亚在卢科尼亚浅滩的石油和天然气项目开发相关的二手数据,本文得出结论认为,海事外交事件具有以下特征:(1)先发制人和持续性,强调马来西亚满足国内日益增长的能源需求的长期计划;(2)向中国官员传递信息的明确性,以消除对手误解马来西亚海上行动的可能性;(3)由于部署了硬实力资产来处理危机,可支配的致命武器具有适度的动能效应。对马来西亚海上外交属性的评估还揭示了两个令人担忧的结论:(1)存在被动事件,由于马来西亚皇家海军的行动缺乏计划性,可能会造成海上混乱;(2)中国和马来西亚之间的力量关系不对称,预计会导致中国继续在海上进行力量投射,并使马来西亚决策者感到不安。
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引用次数: 0
Dimensions of cultural sustainability—Local adaptation, adaptive capacity and social resilience 文化可持续性的各个层面--地方适应性、适应能力和社会复原力
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-12-15 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1285602
Marja Järvelä
Cultural sustainability relates to sustainable development. According to UNESCO “culture provides the necessary transformative dimension that ensures the sustainability of development processes.” Originally sustainable development was defined through three dimensions-ecological, economic and social dimension. Further, the social dimension has been understood in multiple ways often accentuating socio-economic assets of development rather than socio-cultural capacities. Eventually, there has been an increasing interest in defining cultural sustainability as a fourth pillar of sustainable development. While becoming aware of the contemporary supranational risks such as climate change, COVID 19-pandemia or escalating military conflicts, sustainable development can hardly be envisioned in terms of linear progress but rather considered with anticipation of eventual shocks, interruptions, and vulnerabilities related to development. In this perspective, cultural sustainability can be increasingly associated with identifying vulnerabilities and with envisioning attainable measures of adaptation. This article addresses the complex issue of defining cultural sustainability through lenses of social resilience and adaptive capacity at local level.
文化可持续性与可持续发展有关。联合国教科文组织认为,"文化提供了必要的变革维度,确保了发展进程的可持续性"。可持续发展最初是通过生态、经济和社会三个维度来定义的。此外,对社会维度有多种理解,通常强调发展的社会经济资产,而不是社会文化能力。最终,人们越来越关注将文化可持续性定义为可持续发展的第四个支柱。在意识到气候变化、COVID 19 大流行病或军事冲突升级等当代超国家风险的同时,可 持续发展很难从线性进展的角度来设想,而是要考虑到与发展相关的最终冲击、中断和脆弱 性。从这个角度看,文化可持续性越来越多地与确定脆弱性和设想可实现的适应措施联系在一起。本文从社会复原力和地方适应能力的角度,探讨了界定文化可持续性这一复杂问题。
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引用次数: 0
Neurorights as reconceptualized human rights 作为重新概念化的人权的神经权利
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-12-15 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1322922
José M. Muñoz, José Ángel Marinaro
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引用次数: 0
Interactions among national and supranational identities: mobilizing the independence movement in Scotland 民族身份与超国家身份之间的互动:苏格兰独立运动的动员工作
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-12-13 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1281437
Michael T. Heaney, Erika L. Anderson, Madilyn E. Cancro, Grace E. Martin
As nationalism rises worldwide, understanding the relevance of national identities is at a premium in both the study of mass political behavior and the analysis of social movements. Drawing on research in social psychology, this study explores interactions among national and supranational identities using the concepts of identity interference (i.e., negative interactions) and identity complementarity (i.e., positive interactions). These interactions extend beyond the direct effects of identity considered in many previous studies. Focusing on interactions centers the analysis on the contextual aspects of identity during nationalist mobilizations. Survey data from Scotland demonstrate that interactions among Scottish, British, and European identities were consequential for mobilizing support for Scottish independence in 2019. Strong evidence indicates interference between Scottish and British identities. European and Scottish identities complement one another among independence supporters but not in the general population. The possibility of interference between European and British identities is backed by only mixed results. The timing of this study in the aftermath of the Brexit referendum was likely relevant to its findings on European identity. Overall, this research illustrates the benefits of widening the empirical examination of multiple identities in the social sciences.
随着民族主义在全球范围内的兴起,了解国家认同的相关性在大众政治行为研究和社会运动分析中都显得尤为重要。本研究借鉴了社会心理学的研究成果,利用身份干扰(即负面互动)和身份互补(即正面互动)的概念,探讨了国家身份和超国家身份之间的互动。这些互动超出了以往许多研究中考虑的身份认同的直接影响。对互动的关注使分析集中于民族主义动员过程中身份认同的背景方面。来自苏格兰的调查数据表明,苏格兰、英国和欧洲身份之间的互动对 2019 年动员支持苏格兰独立至关重要。有力的证据表明苏格兰身份和英国身份之间存在干扰。在独立支持者中,欧洲身份和苏格兰身份是互补的,但在普通民众中并非如此。欧洲身份认同与英国身份认同之间相互干扰的可能性仅得到了好坏参半的结果支持。在英国脱欧公投之后进行这项研究的时机很可能与欧洲身份认同的研究结果有关。总之,这项研究说明了在社会科学中扩大对多重身份的实证研究的益处。
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引用次数: 0
Archetypes of youth as vectors in power relations - From praises to information operations 作为权力关系载体的青年原型--从赞美到信息行动
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-12-04 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1228838
Niina Meriläinen, M. Hiljanen, Matti Rautiainen
The purpose of this explorative and mixed methods research is to discover and describe the possible archetypes of high school and vocational school students from empirical data produced by young people and media, and to discuss what kinds of power relations these archetypes can create in Finnish society. Indeed, the empirical data produced by young people and those found in newspapers reveal archetypes and various power relations. In particular, the data indicate how the vectors of such archetypes guide thinking about young people and their life courses. In particular, the archetypes illustrate how vocational school students have to defend themselves and their choices in their daily lives, while high school students do not. Furthermore, the empirical data illustrate how the lives of vocational school students are mainly described as happening here and toward the future of the voiceless proletariat, while high school students are considered active and successful changemakers. Vocational school students also question official Finland and the place where they have been situated. Among others, this can create an opportunity for information operations.
这种探索性和混合方法研究的目的是从年轻人和媒体产生的经验数据中发现和描述高中和职业学校学生可能的原型,并讨论这些原型在芬兰社会中可以创造什么样的权力关系。事实上,年轻人提供的经验数据和报纸上的数据揭示了原型和各种权力关系。这些数据特别表明,这些原型的载体如何指导人们思考年轻人及其人生历程。特别是,这些原型说明了职业学校的学生如何在日常生活中为自己和自己的选择辩护,而高中生却没有。此外,实证数据表明,职校学生的生活主要被描述为发生在这里,面向无声无产阶级的未来,而高中生被认为是积极和成功的变革者。职业学校的学生也质疑官方的芬兰和他们所在的地方。除其他外,这可以为信息操作创造机会。
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引用次数: 0
Preventing leaders' autocratic entrenchment by exponential super-majority threshold escalators 通过指数级的超多数门槛自动扶梯来防止领导人的专制
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-11-02 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1173646
Reuven Shapira
This article focuses on alternatives to leaders' constitutional term limits which failed to protect democracy in innumerable countries as they did not reduce incumbency advantages in re-election contests. Such a reduction can achieve a super-majority thresholds escalator for incumbents' re-election. Research has found that setting super-majority thresholds for leadership offices improves the quality of leadership. However, leaders' autocratic entrenchment poses the worse problem of democratic leadership quality. Setting escalating super-majority thresholds for an incumbent's re-election would bar autocratic entrenchment by reducing her/his incumbency advantages in re-election contests. Both ordinal and exponential escalator versions prolong the tenure of successful high-moral effective leaders beyond two terms, allowing them to use accumulated trust credit to advance radical changes, while incumbents who fail to achieve a super-majority threshold are replaced. However, the ordinal version lacks a terminal term, thus it may not prevent autocratic entrenchment, while the exponential version with its terminal term that ensures succession while escalating super-majority thresholds mitigates the exponential growth of leaders' power resources with tenure. After an incumbent fails to re-elect, a second voting round without her/him will give the winner a clear mandate to rule. Suggestions for further study of barring leaders' entrenchment by exponential escalating super-majority thresholds are offered. JEL classification D02; D70; K16; Z13; Z18.
本文关注的是领导人的宪法任期限制的替代方案,这些限制未能保护无数国家的民主,因为它们没有减少连任竞选中的在职优势。这样的削减可以达到超级多数门槛,从而为现任议员的连任创造条件。研究发现,为领导办公室设置超级多数门槛可以提高领导质量。然而,领导人的专制主义构成了民主领导质量的更严重问题。为现任总统的连任设定不断上升的超级多数门槛,将通过减少现任总统在连任竞选中的优势,阻止专制势力的巩固。无论是序数式还是指数式的自动梯式,都将成功的、道德高尚的有效领导人的任期延长至两届以上,使他们能够利用积累的信任信用来推进激进的变革,而未能达到绝对多数门槛的现任领导人则会被替换。然而,序数版本缺乏终结任期,因此可能无法防止专制的巩固,而指数版本的终结任期确保了继承,而不断增加的超级多数门槛则缓解了领导人权力资源的指数增长。在现任总统未能再次当选后,没有他/她的第二轮投票将给获胜者一个明确的执政授权。最后提出了通过指数递增的超多数阈值来阻止领导人壕沟的进一步研究建议。JEL分类D02;D70;K16;Z13;Z18。
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引用次数: 0
Cohort differences in attitudes toward sexual orientation: the formative political climate as a socializing agent 对性取向态度的群体差异:作为社会化媒介的形成性政治气候
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-10-24 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1223274
Anne-Marie Jeannet, Lenka Dražanová
Introduction Why do cohorts differ in their attitudes toward sexual orientation and what is the role of societal values during formative years? We investigate whether discontinuities in the prevailing values of equality and tradition in a person's formative years impinge on their attitudes toward sexual orientation as adults. Methods We test this by integrating historical political data from the Manifesto Project Dataset with contemporary micro-data on attitudes toward sexual orientation from 10 rounds of the European Social Survey (2002-2020) across 13 cohorts in 13 European countries. Results and discussion Using hierarchical age-period-cohort analysis with synthetic age cohorts, we find if the value of equality is politically diffuse, it can have a socializing effect. We find that the individuals who came of age during a period when political values of equality were more dominant are more tolerant of gays and lesbians. On the other hand, we do not find any evidence that individuals who experience youth during a time of more traditional political values have more negative opinions about different sexual orientations. Overall, these findings suggest that cohorts adopt distinct patterns of attitudes toward gays and lesbians as a result of a collective process of socialization during their impressionable years.
为什么不同的群体对性取向的态度不同?在形成时期社会价值观的作用是什么?我们调查在一个人的形成时期,平等和传统的主流价值观的不连续性是否会影响他们成年后对性取向的态度。我们通过整合来自宣言项目数据集的历史政治数据,以及来自13个欧洲国家的13个队列的10轮欧洲社会调查(2002-2020)中关于性取向态度的当代微观数据来验证这一点。结果与讨论采用分层年龄-时期-队列分析和综合年龄队列分析,我们发现如果平等的价值在政治上是分散的,它就会产生社会效应。我们发现,在平等的政治价值观占主导地位的时期长大的人对同性恋者更宽容。另一方面,我们没有发现任何证据表明,在更传统的政治价值观时期经历过青春的个人对不同的性取向有更多的负面看法。总的来说,这些发现表明,在他们易受影响的年龄,由于集体的社会化过程,他们对男女同性恋者采取了不同的态度模式。
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引用次数: 0
Approaching the Unknown. The COVID-19 pandemic, political parties and digital adaptations: party élites' perceptions in Italy and Spain 接近未知。2019冠状病毒病大流行、政党和数字适应:意大利和西班牙政党的看法
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-10-19 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1005385
Davide Vittori, Oscar Barberà
During COVID-19 politics was radically transformed. Even though parliaments, parties, and parliamentary groups continued working, they did so mainly through digital means. Our aim is to investigate how political parties and their élites reacted to those changes. For this aim, we launched a pilot survey among party élites in Spain and Italy. We use descriptive statistics and multivariate OLS regressions to answer to our research questions. Our results point out that parties quickly adapted to executive online meetings, but meetings of other (representative) organs were far less frequent. As for the élites' adaptation and in particular privacy concerns, we find that socio-demographic characteristic of the élites matter and being member of a digital party are not crucial determinants, as we expected. Ideology, on the contrary, play a much relevant role, with right-wing élites being more concerned about privacy. Finally, younger and more educated respondents are more favorable toward moving some parties' activities in the on-line sphere.
在2019冠状病毒病期间,政治发生了根本变化。尽管议会、政党和议会团体仍在继续工作,但他们主要是通过数字手段进行工作的。我们的目的是调查政党及其下属对这些变化的反应。为此目的,我们在西班牙和意大利的党内人士中开展了一项试点调查。我们使用描述性统计和多元OLS回归来回答我们的研究问题。我们的研究结果指出,当事人很快适应了执行在线会议,但其他(代表)机构的会议频率要低得多。至于这些人的适应能力,尤其是隐私问题,我们发现,与我们预期的一样,这些人的社会人口特征很重要,而作为数字一方的成员并不是关键的决定因素。相反,意识形态扮演着重要的角色,右翼人士更关心隐私。最后,年轻和受教育程度较高的受访者更倾向于将一些政党的活动转移到网络领域。
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引用次数: 0
Regulating algorithmic discrimination through adjudication: the Court of Justice of the European Union on discrimination in algorithmic profiling based on PNR data 通过裁决规范算法歧视:欧盟法院关于基于PNR数据的算法侧写中的歧视问题
Q1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Pub Date : 2023-10-16 DOI: 10.3389/fpos.2023.1232601
Lucas Michael Haitsma
This article considers the Court of Justice of the European Union's assessment and regulation of risks of discrimination in the context of algorithmic profiling based on Passenger Name Records data (PNR data). On the June 21, 2022 the court delivered a landmark judgment in Ligue des Droits Humains pertaining to discrimination and algorithmic profiling in a border security context. The CJEU identifies and seeks to regulate several risks of discrimination in relation to the automated processing of PNR data, the manual review of the results of this processing, and the resulting decisions taken by competent authorities. It interpreted whether the PNR Directive that lays down the legal basis for such profiling was compatible with the fundamental right to privacy, the right to data protection, and the right to non-discrimination. In its judgment, the CJEU seems to insufficiently assess various risks of discrimination. In particular, it overlooks risks relating to data quality and representativeness, automation bias, and practical difficulties in identifying discrimination. The judges also seem to prescribe safeguards against discrimination without guidance as to how to ensure their uniform and effective implementation. Such shortcomings can be observed in relation to ensuring the non-discriminatory nature of law enforcement databases, preventing indirectly discriminatory profiling practices based on collected PNR data, and configuring effective human-in-the-loop and transparency safeguards. This landmark judgement represents an important step in addressing algorithmic discrimination through CJEU adjudication. However, the CJEUs inability to sufficiently address the risks of discrimination in the context of algorithmic profiling based on the PNR Directive raises a broader concern. Namely, whether the CJEU is adequately equipped to combat algorithmic discrimination in the broader realm of European border security where algorithmic profiling is becoming increasingly commonplace.
本文考虑了欧盟法院在基于乘客姓名记录数据(PNR数据)的算法分析背景下对歧视风险的评估和监管。2022年6月21日,法院在法国人权法院就边境安全背景下的歧视和算法侧写作出了具有里程碑意义的判决。欧洲法院查明并设法管制与自动处理PNR数据、人工审查这一处理结果以及主管当局所作决定有关的几种歧视风险。它解释了为这种分析奠定法律基础的PNR指令是否符合隐私权、数据保护权和不歧视权的基本权利。在其判决中,欧洲法院似乎没有充分评估各种歧视的风险。特别是,它忽略了与数据质量和代表性、自动化偏差以及识别歧视的实际困难有关的风险。法官似乎也规定了防止歧视的保障措施,但没有指导如何确保这些保障措施的统一和有效执行。在确保执法数据库的非歧视性、防止基于收集的PNR数据的间接歧视性分析做法以及配置有效的人在环路和透明度保障措施方面,可以观察到这些缺陷。这一具有里程碑意义的判决是通过法院裁决解决算法歧视问题的重要一步。然而,欧洲法院无法充分解决基于PNR指令的算法侧写背景下的歧视风险,这引起了更广泛的关注。也就是说,欧洲法院是否有足够的能力在更广泛的欧洲边境安全领域打击算法歧视,因为算法侧写正变得越来越普遍。
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