In the current context of deep recession since 2008, acute Eurozone crisis since 2009 and fragile recovery as of 2013, managing effectively labour migration is crucial and at the same time it may seem a balancing act between opposed concerns: why would we need immigration if domestic unemployment is high? Why don’t we encourage more intra-EU mobility to deal with differences in member state labour markets and further restrict immigration from third countries? This policy paper argues that there are some labour market sectors where ethnicisation (these are “migrant” jobs) persists and resists the crisis effects: natives do not want to take jobs in cleaning and caring even if they are unemployed. Moreover, to be unemployed does not make someone skilled for working in the cleaning and caring sector. Such sectors have been so far outside the scope of EU policy initiatives for managing labour migration and there is a gap there that needs to be addressed. We propose here an EU level sectorial approach, particularly looking at the domestic work sector.
{"title":"Europe 2020: Addressing Low Skill Labour Migration at Times of Fragile Recovery","authors":"A. Triandafyllidou, S. Marchetti","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2434567","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2434567","url":null,"abstract":"In the current context of deep recession since 2008, acute Eurozone crisis since 2009 and fragile recovery as of 2013, managing effectively labour migration is crucial and at the same time it may seem a balancing act between opposed concerns: why would we need immigration if domestic unemployment is high? Why don’t we encourage more intra-EU mobility to deal with differences in member state labour markets and further restrict immigration from third countries? This policy paper argues that there are some labour market sectors where ethnicisation (these are “migrant” jobs) persists and resists the crisis effects: natives do not want to take jobs in cleaning and caring even if they are unemployed. Moreover, to be unemployed does not make someone skilled for working in the cleaning and caring sector. Such sectors have been so far outside the scope of EU policy initiatives for managing labour migration and there is a gap there that needs to be addressed. We propose here an EU level sectorial approach, particularly looking at the domestic work sector.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"120948241","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Since easier access to a large supply of foreign labour might generate undesirable incentives on the part of both employers and prospective workers, a Temporary Foreign Worker (TFW ) program requires careful design. Failure at any stage of the process – at time of hiring, during employment, or at the end of the contract – is likely to create significant negative effects on domestic workers and, in the medium term, on the temporary foreign workers themselves. When choosing between domestic and foreign workers, employers are naturally concerned about labour costs and labour productivity. Therefore, a key design feature of any TFW program is the hiring conditions it imposes on employers – conditions that must deal with regional or occupational labour market shortages. Between 2002 and 2013, Canada eased the hiring conditions of TFWs several times, supposedly because of a reported labour shortage in some occupations, especially in western Canada. By 2012, the number of employed TFWs was 338,000, up from 101,000 in 2002, yet the unemployment rate remained the same at 7.2 percent. Furthermore, these policy changes occurred even though there was little empirical evidence of shortages in many occupations. When controlling for differences across provinces, I find that changes to the TFWP that eased hiring conditions accelerated the rise in unemployment rates in Alberta and British Columbia. The reversal of some of these changes in 2013 is welcome but probably not sufficient, largely because adequate information is still lacking about the state of the labour market, and because the uniform application fee employers pay to hire TFWs does not adequately increase their incentive to search for domestic workers to fill job vacancies.
{"title":"Temporary Foreign Workers in Canada: Are They Really Filling Labour Shortages?","authors":"Dominique M. Gross","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2428817","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2428817","url":null,"abstract":"Since easier access to a large supply of foreign labour might generate undesirable incentives on the part of both employers and prospective workers, a Temporary Foreign Worker (TFW ) program requires careful design. Failure at any stage of the process – at time of hiring, during employment, or at the end of the contract – is likely to create significant negative effects on domestic workers and, in the medium term, on the temporary foreign workers themselves. When choosing between domestic and foreign workers, employers are naturally concerned about labour costs and labour productivity. Therefore, a key design feature of any TFW program is the hiring conditions it imposes on employers – conditions that must deal with regional or occupational labour market shortages. Between 2002 and 2013, Canada eased the hiring conditions of TFWs several times, supposedly because of a reported labour shortage in some occupations, especially in western Canada. By 2012, the number of employed TFWs was 338,000, up from 101,000 in 2002, yet the unemployment rate remained the same at 7.2 percent. Furthermore, these policy changes occurred even though there was little empirical evidence of shortages in many occupations. When controlling for differences across provinces, I find that changes to the TFWP that eased hiring conditions accelerated the rise in unemployment rates in Alberta and British Columbia. The reversal of some of these changes in 2013 is welcome but probably not sufficient, largely because adequate information is still lacking about the state of the labour market, and because the uniform application fee employers pay to hire TFWs does not adequately increase their incentive to search for domestic workers to fill job vacancies.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-04-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130554196","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Since the first Chinese student, Yung Wing, studied abroad in 1847, large waves of Chinese have followed his lead, aiming to study advanced technology and ideologies, with the mission to save their backward country. This paper discusses the benefits and changes of this overseas experience for the students, and reviews the important role played by the returnees in the nation’s industrialization between 1850s and 1940s. By analyzing the cases of a number of representative returnees in various industries, we summarize their features and the contributions they have made to the advancement of modern business in China, such as the application of new technologies to boost productivity, the focus on R&D and the training of employees, and the implementation of modern management systems.
{"title":"Returnees’ Influences on China: A Business Perspective (1850s to 1940s)","authors":"Huiyao Wang, Tinghua Duan, W. Hou","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2424383","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2424383","url":null,"abstract":"Since the first Chinese student, Yung Wing, studied abroad in 1847, large waves of Chinese have followed his lead, aiming to study advanced technology and ideologies, with the mission to save their backward country. This paper discusses the benefits and changes of this overseas experience for the students, and reviews the important role played by the returnees in the nation’s industrialization between 1850s and 1940s. By analyzing the cases of a number of representative returnees in various industries, we summarize their features and the contributions they have made to the advancement of modern business in China, such as the application of new technologies to boost productivity, the focus on R&D and the training of employees, and the implementation of modern management systems.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-04-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124196186","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2014-04-12DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-45320-9_8
Núria Rodríguez-Planas, Ĺıdia Farré
{"title":"Migration, Crisis and Adjustment in an Enlarged E(M)U: The Spanish Perspective","authors":"Núria Rodríguez-Planas, Ĺıdia Farré","doi":"10.1007/978-3-662-45320-9_8","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45320-9_8","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"38 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-04-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124959377","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
We develop an index measuring the three main dimensions – prosecution, protection, and prevention – of the anti-trafficking policies of the governments of up to 180 countries over the 2000−2010 period. Overall, developed countries perform better than the rest of the world; compliance with prosecution policy is highest, while governmental efforts to protect victims of human trafficking remain weakest. We employ the new indices to investigate which factors determine anti-trafficking policies. We find that compliance with anti-trafficking policies significantly decreases with corruption and is higher in countries that also respect the rights of women. We also find some tentative evidence for spatial dependence in anti-trafficking policies.
{"title":"Determinants of Anti‐Trafficking Policies: Evidence from a New Index","authors":"Seo-Young Cho, A. Dreher, E. Neumayer","doi":"10.1111/sjoe.12055","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12055","url":null,"abstract":"We develop an index measuring the three main dimensions – prosecution, protection, and prevention – of the anti-trafficking policies of the governments of up to 180 countries over the 2000−2010 period. Overall, developed countries perform better than the rest of the world; compliance with prosecution policy is highest, while governmental efforts to protect victims of human trafficking remain weakest. We employ the new indices to investigate which factors determine anti-trafficking policies. We find that compliance with anti-trafficking policies significantly decreases with corruption and is higher in countries that also respect the rights of women. We also find some tentative evidence for spatial dependence in anti-trafficking policies.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131185699","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Domestic worker has always played a major role in almost every household. Domestic workers are employed for various purposes that include cleaning, laundry, gardening, cooking, child-minding and most other kinds of household work (Schwenken and Heimeshoff, 2011). It has been estimated by the International Labour Organization (ILO) that over 100 million people are employed as domestic workers around the world (ILO, 2008). In spite of the high number of domestic workers around the world there are several problems faced by the people working in this sector and several organizations are trying to formulate guidelines to regulate the working conditions of domestic workers (Lutz, 2008).
{"title":"Domestic Workers in Philippines","authors":"Chenoy Ceil","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2409712","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2409712","url":null,"abstract":"Domestic worker has always played a major role in almost every household. Domestic workers are employed for various purposes that include cleaning, laundry, gardening, cooking, child-minding and most other kinds of household work (Schwenken and Heimeshoff, 2011). It has been estimated by the International Labour Organization (ILO) that over 100 million people are employed as domestic workers around the world (ILO, 2008). In spite of the high number of domestic workers around the world there are several problems faced by the people working in this sector and several organizations are trying to formulate guidelines to regulate the working conditions of domestic workers (Lutz, 2008).","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"16 4","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"120995767","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2014-03-10DOI: 10.5771/9783845247878_143
J. Bast
German Abstract: Von Solidaritat unter Burgern ist in den Grundungsvertragen der Union kaum die Rede. In den meisten Artikeln bezieht sich die geschuldete oder zu fordernde Solidaritat auf die Beziehungen zwischen den Mitgliedstaaten, so auch bei den rechtlichen Grundlagen fur die europaische Migrationspolitik. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird der kritische Fall diskutiert, in dem massive Konflikte uber die Solidarbeziehungen im europaischen Migrationsraum existieren: das Dublin-System zur Bestimmung des zustandigen Asylstaats. Das Beispiel des Dublin-Systems zeigt, dass das Solidaritatsprinzip im Recht der EU auf eine Spannungslage zwischen einem hohen Grad an supranationaler Integration und gleichzeitiger Heterogenitat der Mitgliedstaaten reagiert: Es moderiert eine Situation, in der ungleich verteilte Anpassungslasten bei der Herstellung europaischer offentlicher Guter zu kompensieren sind.English Abstract: The Treaties on which the European Union are founded hardly ever mention the notion of solidarity between citizens. The type of solidarity owed according to the terms of the Treaties mostly concerns the relationship between Member States. This holds true also in the chapter providing the legal basis for European immigration and asylum policies. The present paper discusses the critical case, where huge conflicts exist pertaining to the solidarity relationships within the European migration space, viz. the Dublin system determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for asylum. The Dublin example demonstrates that in EU law the principle of solidarity operates in a field of tension between a high degree of supranational integration and, simultaneously, a high degree of heterogeneity of its Member States. It aims to compensate an asymmetric distribution of adjustment costs in producing European public goods.
{"title":"Solidarität im europäischen Einwanderungs- und Asylrecht (Solidarity in European Immigration and Asylum Law)","authors":"J. Bast","doi":"10.5771/9783845247878_143","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845247878_143","url":null,"abstract":"German Abstract: Von Solidaritat unter Burgern ist in den Grundungsvertragen der Union kaum die Rede. In den meisten Artikeln bezieht sich die geschuldete oder zu fordernde Solidaritat auf die Beziehungen zwischen den Mitgliedstaaten, so auch bei den rechtlichen Grundlagen fur die europaische Migrationspolitik. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird der kritische Fall diskutiert, in dem massive Konflikte uber die Solidarbeziehungen im europaischen Migrationsraum existieren: das Dublin-System zur Bestimmung des zustandigen Asylstaats. Das Beispiel des Dublin-Systems zeigt, dass das Solidaritatsprinzip im Recht der EU auf eine Spannungslage zwischen einem hohen Grad an supranationaler Integration und gleichzeitiger Heterogenitat der Mitgliedstaaten reagiert: Es moderiert eine Situation, in der ungleich verteilte Anpassungslasten bei der Herstellung europaischer offentlicher Guter zu kompensieren sind.English Abstract: The Treaties on which the European Union are founded hardly ever mention the notion of solidarity between citizens. The type of solidarity owed according to the terms of the Treaties mostly concerns the relationship between Member States. This holds true also in the chapter providing the legal basis for European immigration and asylum policies. The present paper discusses the critical case, where huge conflicts exist pertaining to the solidarity relationships within the European migration space, viz. the Dublin system determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for asylum. The Dublin example demonstrates that in EU law the principle of solidarity operates in a field of tension between a high degree of supranational integration and, simultaneously, a high degree of heterogeneity of its Member States. It aims to compensate an asymmetric distribution of adjustment costs in producing European public goods.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129814072","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper investigates the trade migration link within a Ricardian model` a la Eaton and Kortum (2002) and it quantifies the pro-trade effects of immigrants for 18 manufactur- ing sectors in a sample of 19 OECD countries. The results are robust across different econometric specifications and they indicate pulp, paper, paper products, printing and publishing as the sector where immigration has the greatest impact on trade. The analy- sis shows that accounting for ethnic networks in the trade share equation has important implications for the estimation of trade cost elasticity parameter across all manufacturing sectors. By following a two-step approach to estimate trade cost elasticity at sector level where q is proportional to the effect of wages on exporter fixed effects, I find that in total manufacturing q decreases by 1.03 when ethnic networks are included among the determinants of trade. This drop of trade cost elasticity approximately corresponds - on average - to a welfare gain of 4.16% of national income.
{"title":"The Sectoral Pro-Trade Effects of Ethnic Networks within a Ricardian Model of Trade","authors":"M. Lanati","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2406318","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2406318","url":null,"abstract":"This paper investigates the trade migration link within a Ricardian model` a la Eaton and Kortum (2002) and it quantifies the pro-trade effects of immigrants for 18 manufactur- ing sectors in a sample of 19 OECD countries. The results are robust across different econometric specifications and they indicate pulp, paper, paper products, printing and publishing as the sector where immigration has the greatest impact on trade. The analy- sis shows that accounting for ethnic networks in the trade share equation has important implications for the estimation of trade cost elasticity parameter across all manufacturing sectors. By following a two-step approach to estimate trade cost elasticity at sector level where q is proportional to the effect of wages on exporter fixed effects, I find that in total manufacturing q decreases by 1.03 when ethnic networks are included among the determinants of trade. This drop of trade cost elasticity approximately corresponds - on average - to a welfare gain of 4.16% of national income.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"49 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134215035","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper studies the costs and benefits of the adoption of the policy of free movement for workers. For the countries to agree on uncontrolled movement of workers, the short run costs must be outweighed by the long term benefits that result from better labor market flexibility and income smoothing. We show that such policies are less likely to be adopted when workers are impatient and less risk averse workers, when production technologies display decreasing returns and when countries trade a share of their products.
{"title":"Is a Policy of Free Movement of Workers Sustainable?","authors":"P. Picard, T. Worrall","doi":"10.1111/sjoe.12163","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12163","url":null,"abstract":"This paper studies the costs and benefits of the adoption of the policy of free movement for workers. For the countries to agree on uncontrolled movement of workers, the short run costs must be outweighed by the long term benefits that result from better labor market flexibility and income smoothing. We show that such policies are less likely to be adopted when workers are impatient and less risk averse workers, when production technologies display decreasing returns and when countries trade a share of their products.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"44 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122929598","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
By applying event-history analysis to all available waves of the German Socio-Economic Panel, we analyze how remigration intentions and actual remigration of Turkish migrants to Germany have evolved over time. The study draws from a broad set of theoretical approaches to remigration and it takes a different focus than previous studies by concentrating on long-term change in these rates. Our findings reveal an increase in remigration intentions and rates for first generation migrants after the turn of the millennium. Those who plan to return have a stronger emotional attachment to Turkey than those who plan to stay. Nevertheless, the two groups differ neither with respect to their educational levels nor in terms of their identification with Germany and perceptions of discrimination. Similarly, the small though slightly increasing group of immigrants that actually returns does not have a clear profile in terms of educational level, national identification, and perceptions of being disadvantaged in Germany. We thus argue that for first-generation migrants from Turkey after 2001, rising remigration intentions and actual remigration are unrelated to their integration into German society. Rather, the increase seems to be triggered by macro-structural changes in the country of origin.
{"title":"Turning Back to Turkey – Or Turning the Back to Germany? Remigration Intentions and Behavior of Turkish Immigrants in Germany between 1984 and 2011","authors":"C. Diehl, E. Liebau","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2407987","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2407987","url":null,"abstract":"By applying event-history analysis to all available waves of the German Socio-Economic Panel, we analyze how remigration intentions and actual remigration of Turkish migrants to Germany have evolved over time. The study draws from a broad set of theoretical approaches to remigration and it takes a different focus than previous studies by concentrating on long-term change in these rates. Our findings reveal an increase in remigration intentions and rates for first generation migrants after the turn of the millennium. Those who plan to return have a stronger emotional attachment to Turkey than those who plan to stay. Nevertheless, the two groups differ neither with respect to their educational levels nor in terms of their identification with Germany and perceptions of discrimination. Similarly, the small though slightly increasing group of immigrants that actually returns does not have a clear profile in terms of educational level, national identification, and perceptions of being disadvantaged in Germany. We thus argue that for first-generation migrants from Turkey after 2001, rising remigration intentions and actual remigration are unrelated to their integration into German society. Rather, the increase seems to be triggered by macro-structural changes in the country of origin.","PeriodicalId":346996,"journal":{"name":"International Political Economy: Migration eJournal","volume":"138 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126915419","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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