Ecosystem services are "the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human wellbeing" and they can help to cope with the major challenges that cities are facing nowadays. In fact, healthy ecosystem are able to regulate city temperature reducing the heat island effect, reduce water run off, and improve human health and the overall resilience of urban areas. At the same time, urbanisation has increased the pressure on natural resources, generating several impacts on the ecosystems and on the services provided by them at local, regional, national and global scales. This phenomenon has been exacerbated by the impacts of climate change, increasing vulnerability to natural disaster risks. At international and national level several policies for the protection of ecosystems has been defined. Indeed regional and local authorities can improve integrated spatial planning and coordinated management between sectors to reduce the pressures on natural system. In order to do this it is fundamental to understand the value of the ecosystem to introduce regulatory and market instruments that are able to protect them.
{"title":"Nature-based solutions (NBSs) for urban resilience. Introduction","authors":"E. Croci, Benedetta Lucchitta","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-002002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-002002","url":null,"abstract":"Ecosystem services are \"the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human wellbeing\" and they can help to cope with the major challenges that cities are facing nowadays. In fact, healthy ecosystem are able to regulate city temperature reducing the heat island effect, reduce water run off, and improve human health and the overall resilience of urban areas. At the same time, urbanisation has increased the pressure on natural resources, generating several impacts on the ecosystems and on the services provided by them at local, regional, national and global scales. This phenomenon has been exacerbated by the impacts of climate change, increasing vulnerability to natural disaster risks. At international and national level several policies for the protection of ecosystems has been defined. Indeed regional and local authorities can improve integrated spatial planning and coordinated management between sectors to reduce the pressures on natural system. In order to do this it is fundamental to understand the value of the ecosystem to introduce regulatory and market instruments that are able to protect them.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44607681","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Alfonso Aranda-Usón, J. Moneva, Pilar Portillo-Tarragona, Fernando Llena-Macarulla
Currently, numerous governments and international organisations are promoting the implementation of the circular economy - both within the EU and in other regions - as an alternative to lineal models, and in search of a compromise between competitiveness and the sustainable exploitation of resources. The implementation of a circular business model is closely tied to the territory within which firms operate. As a result, firms are highly sensitive to the existence of favourable conditions at the regional level, which can greatly accelerate the transition towards circular models and regions play a relevant role in the adoption of the circular economy principles by the private sector. Similarly, the adoption of models based on circular economy principles at the micro level has an effect on macro indicators at the regional level, especially concerning the flow of raw materials and other resources, and this contributes to ensuring that quality standards and resource availability are maintained throughout the value chain. The effects of the adoption of these models on a territory can be measured in terms of volume of transactions, generation of jobs and consumption of raw materials. In this context, this study aims to contribute to the measurement of the activities related to the circular economy that have been implemented at regional level by business. This allows us to improve the knowledge of the socioeconomic impact of the circular economy, and offer an empirical approach for the development of specific regional policies to improve the circular economy in businesses.
{"title":"Measurement of the circular economy in businesses: Impact and implications for regional policies","authors":"Alfonso Aranda-Usón, J. Moneva, Pilar Portillo-Tarragona, Fernando Llena-Macarulla","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-002010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-002010","url":null,"abstract":"Currently, numerous governments and international organisations are promoting the implementation of the circular economy - both within the EU and in other regions - as an alternative to lineal models, and in search of a compromise between competitiveness and the sustainable exploitation of resources. The implementation of a circular business model is closely tied to the territory within which firms operate. As a result, firms are highly sensitive to the existence of favourable conditions at the regional level, which can greatly accelerate the transition towards circular models and regions play a relevant role in the adoption of the circular economy principles by the private sector. Similarly, the adoption of models based on circular economy principles at the micro level has an effect on macro indicators at the regional level, especially concerning the flow of raw materials and other resources, and this contributes to ensuring that quality standards and resource availability are maintained throughout the value chain. The effects of the adoption of these models on a territory can be measured in terms of volume of transactions, generation of jobs and consumption of raw materials. In this context, this study aims to contribute to the measurement of the activities related to the circular economy that have been implemented at regional level by business. This allows us to improve the knowledge of the socioeconomic impact of the circular economy, and offer an empirical approach for the development of specific regional policies to improve the circular economy in businesses.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48279677","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Francesca Neonato, Barbara Colaninno, F. Tomasinelli
A growing number of people is coming to live and work in cities, that now host more than 50% of the human population. Solutions to better handle this process are mandatory to ensure the wellbeing of citizens. In the environmental field, urban green infrastructures play a vital role as providers of Ecosystem Services. The more complex and structured urban green areas are, the more important their functions are. A purely aesthetic vision of green, as urban furniture, changes to a productive one, where green infrastructures provide benefits and Naturebased Solutions. Urban green infrastructures can be integrated into multifunctional ecological network, modelled on wider natural park networks at regional level, but with a special focus in people wellbeing. The procedure to develop a feasibility plan for an urban ecological network and some practical examples are here described. To promote this vision, new forms of exchange are emerging, such as PES (Payment for Ecosystem Services), that can be effective natural resources management tool that allows to internalize environmental costs and benefits in the decision-making process, while preserving the landscape and the environment. Assigning a value to the various Ecosystem Services is therefore an essential tool for policy makers, planners, investors and ordinary citizens, so being able to choose between different options in an aware way. A review of different methods to evaluate the Ecosystem Services provided by the various urban green typologies are illustrated with a wide bibliography.
{"title":"Green Ecosystem Services: TEV as tool to take decision for urban Planning","authors":"Francesca Neonato, Barbara Colaninno, F. Tomasinelli","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-002005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-002005","url":null,"abstract":"A growing number of people is coming to live and work in cities, that now host more than 50% of the human population. Solutions to better handle this process are mandatory to ensure the wellbeing of citizens. In the environmental field, urban green infrastructures play a vital role as providers of Ecosystem Services. The more complex and structured urban green areas are, the more important their functions are. A purely aesthetic vision of green, as urban furniture, changes to a productive one, where green infrastructures provide benefits and Naturebased Solutions. Urban green infrastructures can be integrated into multifunctional ecological network, modelled on wider natural park networks at regional level, but with a special focus in people wellbeing. The procedure to develop a feasibility plan for an urban ecological network and some practical examples are here described. To promote this vision, new forms of exchange are emerging, such as PES (Payment for Ecosystem Services), that can be effective natural resources management tool that allows to internalize environmental costs and benefits in the decision-making process, while preserving the landscape and the environment. Assigning a value to the various Ecosystem Services is therefore an essential tool for policy makers, planners, investors and ordinary citizens, so being able to choose between different options in an aware way. A review of different methods to evaluate the Ecosystem Services provided by the various urban green typologies are illustrated with a wide bibliography.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48087943","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Environmental taxes and green fiscal reform in Italy: An update","authors":"Andrea Zatti","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-001003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-001003","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43166234","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Does an efficient and flexible mechanism exist to address negative externalities of products, or are we doomed to grow the list of product standards? In this paper, I open the discussion whether eco-modulation in the framework of collective extended producer responsibility (EPR) could be able to spur the design of more environmentally sound products at end of life. In Europe, EPR for final products has mainly been implemented in the form of collective systems, where producers pay a fee per quantity of items placed on the market to a central organisation. This compliance fee represents the average cost of treating waste for a given product stream. Since waste management costs are averaged across producers, such collective EPR schemes have been criticised for hindering individual internalisation of products’ end-of-life externalities. To deal with these critiques, French public authorities have imposed eco-modulation to EPR collective systems. Eco-modulation consists in penalising or rewarding individual design choices of producers, using financial incentives. The European Commission is now planning to revise its directive Dir. 1994/62/EC to provide guiding principles on eco-modulation for packaging for all EPR organisations across Europe. In general, eco-modulation is becoming increasingly relevant on the European scene. Therefore, I aim at reflecting on the efficiency of eco-modulation in addressing products’ negative externalities at end-of-life, by analysing early feedbacks and data from French EPR systems.
{"title":"Pricing products' negative externalities at end-of-life using eco-modulation: Discussion from case studies","authors":"Eugénie Joltreau","doi":"10.3280/efe2018-001007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/efe2018-001007","url":null,"abstract":"Does an efficient and flexible mechanism exist to address negative externalities of products, or are we doomed to grow the list of product standards? In this paper, I open the discussion whether eco-modulation in the framework of collective extended producer responsibility (EPR) could be able to spur the design of more environmentally sound products at end of life. In Europe, EPR for final products has mainly been implemented in the form of collective systems, where producers pay a fee per quantity of items placed on the market to a central organisation. This compliance fee represents the average cost of treating waste for a given product stream. Since waste management costs are averaged across producers, such collective EPR schemes have been criticised for hindering individual internalisation of products’ end-of-life externalities. To deal with these critiques, French public authorities have imposed eco-modulation to EPR collective systems. Eco-modulation consists in penalising or rewarding individual design choices of producers, using financial incentives. The European Commission is now planning to revise its directive Dir. 1994/62/EC to provide guiding principles on eco-modulation for packaging for all EPR organisations across Europe. In general, eco-modulation is becoming increasingly relevant on the European scene. Therefore, I aim at reflecting on the efficiency of eco-modulation in addressing products’ negative externalities at end-of-life, by analysing early feedbacks and data from French EPR systems.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45773878","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Asian economies are often characterized as having bank-dominated financial systems and underdeveloped capital markets, in particular with regard to venture capital. In economies that banks are the main source of funding, the main obstacle for financing infrastructural projects including renewable energy (RE) projects is lack of access to long-term finance. The second obstacle for development of RE energy projects is their lower rate of return comparing to fossil fuel projects as more subsidies are globally going to fossil fuels. For larger RE projects insurance and pensions are sustainable financing alternatives. Pension funds and insurance companies hold long-term savings, so these institutions could be a proper alternative for financing mega-size RE projects. In addition, utilizing the spillover effects originally created by energy supplies in form of tax revenues refund to RE projects will increase their rate of return and make them interesting for private investors. For smaller-size RE projects, the paper provides a theoretical model for combining utilisation of carbon tax and a new way of financing risky capital, i.e., Hometown Investment Trust Funds (HITs). The paper theoretically shows that by environmental taxation and allocating these tax revenues to HITs, RE projects will become more feasible and more interesting for private investors; hence the supply of investment money to these funds will increase.
{"title":"Combining environmental taxation, spill-over effects and community-based financing in development of renewable energy projects in Asia","authors":"N. Yoshino, Farhad Taghizadeh‐Hesary","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-001006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-001006","url":null,"abstract":"Asian economies are often characterized as having bank-dominated financial systems and underdeveloped capital markets, in particular with regard to venture capital. In economies that banks are the main source of funding, the main obstacle for financing infrastructural projects including renewable energy (RE) projects is lack of access to long-term finance. The second obstacle for development of RE energy projects is their lower rate of return comparing to fossil fuel projects as more subsidies are globally going to fossil fuels. For larger RE projects insurance and pensions are sustainable financing alternatives. Pension funds and insurance companies hold long-term savings, so these institutions could be a proper alternative for financing mega-size RE projects. In addition, utilizing the spillover effects originally created by energy supplies in form of tax revenues refund to RE projects will increase their rate of return and make them interesting for private investors. For smaller-size RE projects, the paper provides a theoretical model for combining utilisation of carbon tax and a new way of financing risky capital, i.e., Hometown Investment Trust Funds (HITs). The paper theoretically shows that by environmental taxation and allocating these tax revenues to HITs, RE projects will become more feasible and more interesting for private investors; hence the supply of investment money to these funds will increase.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44120536","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions are rising worldwide. Despite the efforts made both at the national and at the international level, new policies are needed in order to effectively reduce the GHG emissions. Command-and-control policies have been frequently adopted, but proved not to suffice to reverse the phenomenon. A carbon tax could make the case, but it is seldom implemented due to its assumed political unpopularity. A contingent valuation experiment is performed in USA and in Italy to analyze this issue. The results show that the policy acceptability is very high and that the median WTP ranges between a minimum of $161 and a maximum of $246, and varies according to the tax revenue use, the respondents’ nationality, the respondents’ beliefs and knowledge about climate change, and some sociodemographic characteristics. Policy implications of the results obtained are further described in the paper.
{"title":"Carbon Tax acceptability: A comparative experimental analysis","authors":"Lucia Rotaris, Alessandro Gardelli","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-001005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-001005","url":null,"abstract":"Greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions are rising worldwide. Despite the efforts made both at the national and at the international level, new policies are needed in order to effectively reduce the GHG emissions. Command-and-control policies have been frequently adopted, but proved not to suffice to reverse the phenomenon. A carbon tax could make the case, but it is seldom implemented due to its assumed political unpopularity. A contingent valuation experiment is performed in USA and in Italy to analyze this issue. The results show that the policy acceptability is very high and that the median WTP ranges between a minimum of $161 and a maximum of $246, and varies according to the tax revenue use, the respondents’ nationality, the respondents’ beliefs and knowledge about climate change, and some sociodemographic characteristics. Policy implications of the results obtained are further described in the paper.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41799086","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Environmental taxes: Efficiency, allocational effects and political acceptability. Introduction","authors":"P. Geoffron","doi":"10.3280/efe2018-001002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/efe2018-001002","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45892156","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper empirically researches the short and long-run causal relationship be-tween energy consumption, CO2 emission, population growth and economic growth in Ethiopia. In doing this, the paper employs multivariate Granger-Causality within an ARDL-bounds testing approach to co-integration and unre-stricted error correction model (UECM). The paper finds that there is a short-run impact on population growth and electricity consumption on economic growth whilst in the long run; economic growth promotes CO2 emissions in Ethiopia. And also, the results indicate that population growth and energy usage cause CO2 emis-sion in both the long and the short runs. Thus, policies should be targeted at the expansion of renewable and efficient electricity production in order to cope with the expected demand from expected population growth and from increasing de-mand from industries whilst maintaining sustainable economic growth.
{"title":"The relationship between energy consumption, CO2 emission, population growth and economic growth: An empirical multivariate causal linkage from Ethiopia","authors":"Erasmus L. Owusu","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-001010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-001010","url":null,"abstract":"This paper empirically researches the short and long-run causal relationship be-tween energy consumption, CO2 emission, population growth and economic growth in Ethiopia. In doing this, the paper employs multivariate Granger-Causality within an ARDL-bounds testing approach to co-integration and unre-stricted error correction model (UECM). The paper finds that there is a short-run impact on population growth and electricity consumption on economic growth whilst in the long run; economic growth promotes CO2 emissions in Ethiopia. And also, the results indicate that population growth and energy usage cause CO2 emis-sion in both the long and the short runs. Thus, policies should be targeted at the expansion of renewable and efficient electricity production in order to cope with the expected demand from expected population growth and from increasing de-mand from industries whilst maintaining sustainable economic growth.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43224923","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Termed a "climate-energy contribution", the carbon tax was introduced in France in 2014 to price energy-related CO2 emissions not covered by the European emissions trading scheme. Its ramp-up is likely to accelerate, at least as far as the rate is concerned, calling for an initial assessment of its actual effects. Such an evaluation is what this edition of Information & Debates provides, concentrating on the sectors most concerned. Evaluating the impact of the tax is not just a matter of comparing emissions before and after the tax came into force, but requires a comparison of the emissions observed over the period with the evolution of a "counterfactual" scenario representing the hypothetical trajectory that emissions would have followed in its absence. In the first part, we look at the contextual elements needed to understand how the price signal of carbon affects economic actors by way of energy prices. In the second and third parts we then evaluate the impacts of the tax by taking an ex ante approach and an ex post approach respectively. The ex-ante approach is based on calculating price and tax elasticities. It is carried out indi-rectly by comparing the carbon tax with an increase in the prices of fossil fuels. Although this raises the question of transmission from the one to the other, it has the advantage of not requiring a temporal distance in relation to the introduction of the tax. The results suggest that the carbon tax led to a reduction in emissions from the transport sector of between 0.6 and 1.7 Mt of CO2 in 2017. Taxation of heating oil for its part reduced emissions from the heating of buildings by 0.7 Mt CO2. For transport and fuel oil, the method leads to the prediction that by the end of the five-year period the tax should lead to a reduction in emissions of between 3 and 5.7 Mt of CO2 compared to 2017. These various estimates likely to be a minimum, since it seems that consumers are more responsive to a price increase resulting from higher taxes than to one induced by a change in the price of fossil raw materials. The ex post approach is based on the "synthetic control" method, and involves reconstructing France’s hypothetical emissions from a group of comparable countries that have not introduced a carbon tax during the period. This approach produces a direct evaluation in that the impact of the tax is estimated is implemented over the period the tax has been in force. Applied to France over the period 2014-2017, it does not allow a robust conclusion to be drawn as to the impact of the introduction of the carbon tax on emissions from the transport or building heating sector over the period concerned. This result may be explained by the small number of observations currently available since the introduction of the tax.
{"title":"A quantified evaluation of the French «carbon tax»","authors":"Stéphane Gloriant","doi":"10.3280/EFE2018-001004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3280/EFE2018-001004","url":null,"abstract":"Termed a \"climate-energy contribution\", the carbon tax was introduced in France in 2014 to price energy-related CO2 emissions not covered by the European emissions trading scheme. Its ramp-up is likely to accelerate, at least as far as the rate is concerned, calling for an initial assessment of its actual effects. Such an evaluation is what this edition of Information & Debates provides, concentrating on the sectors most concerned. Evaluating the impact of the tax is not just a matter of comparing emissions before and after the tax came into force, but requires a comparison of the emissions observed over the period with the evolution of a \"counterfactual\" scenario representing the hypothetical trajectory that emissions would have followed in its absence. In the first part, we look at the contextual elements needed to understand how the price signal of carbon affects economic actors by way of energy prices. In the second and third parts we then evaluate the impacts of the tax by taking an ex ante approach and an ex post approach respectively. The ex-ante approach is based on calculating price and tax elasticities. It is carried out indi-rectly by comparing the carbon tax with an increase in the prices of fossil fuels. Although this raises the question of transmission from the one to the other, it has the advantage of not requiring a temporal distance in relation to the introduction of the tax. The results suggest that the carbon tax led to a reduction in emissions from the transport sector of between 0.6 and 1.7 Mt of CO2 in 2017. Taxation of heating oil for its part reduced emissions from the heating of buildings by 0.7 Mt CO2. For transport and fuel oil, the method leads to the prediction that by the end of the five-year period the tax should lead to a reduction in emissions of between 3 and 5.7 Mt of CO2 compared to 2017. These various estimates likely to be a minimum, since it seems that consumers are more responsive to a price increase resulting from higher taxes than to one induced by a change in the price of fossil raw materials. The ex post approach is based on the \"synthetic control\" method, and involves reconstructing France’s hypothetical emissions from a group of comparable countries that have not introduced a carbon tax during the period. This approach produces a direct evaluation in that the impact of the tax is estimated is implemented over the period the tax has been in force. Applied to France over the period 2014-2017, it does not allow a robust conclusion to be drawn as to the impact of the introduction of the carbon tax on emissions from the transport or building heating sector over the period concerned. This result may be explained by the small number of observations currently available since the introduction of the tax.","PeriodicalId":38445,"journal":{"name":"Economics and Policy of Energy and the Environment","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42964504","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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