Pub Date : 2023-11-16DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2147720
JIANG Shan
In the current knowledge system of acupuncture and moxibustion, the Ashi Point belongs to one of the three categories of acupoints. However, the source of this knowledge is from an inconspicuous ru...
在现行的针灸知识体系中，阿石穴属于三大腧穴之一。然而，这些知识的来源来自一个不起眼的地方……
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Pub Date : 2023-11-16DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2150017
CHEN Siyan
Reconstructing the body of acupuncture and moxibustion knowledge was seen as an important measure to prove the effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicine in the Republican period of China. Many ...
重建针灸知识体系是民国时期证明中医有效性的一项重要措施。许多……
{"title":"To be canonic or scientific: a study of knowledge innovation of acupuncture and moxibustion in the Republican period of China","authors":"CHEN Siyan","doi":"10.1080/17535654.2022.2150017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17535654.2022.2150017","url":null,"abstract":"Reconstructing the body of acupuncture and moxibustion knowledge was seen as an important measure to prove the effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicine in the Republican period of China. Many ...","PeriodicalId":41223,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Chinese History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2023-11-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138492473","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101796
Hu-min Zhu
ABSTRACT The Chinese social relief system, first established in the eighteenth century, had already faced enormous pressure during the late Qing period. Impacted by the West and galvanized by China’s domestic social transformation, however, the Chinese social relief system embarked on some new development unseen before, including diversified famine relief mechanisms, socialization of famine relief granaries, and the development of inclusive philanthropy. The above development is a testament to the fact that the social relief system of late Qing gradually moved away from the old, state-dominated model and became an integral part of the social transformation in modern China.
{"title":"Evolution of the social relief system in late Qing and its impacts","authors":"Hu-min Zhu","doi":"10.1080/17535654.2022.2101796","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17535654.2022.2101796","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The Chinese social relief system, first established in the eighteenth century, had already faced enormous pressure during the late Qing period. Impacted by the West and galvanized by China’s domestic social transformation, however, the Chinese social relief system embarked on some new development unseen before, including diversified famine relief mechanisms, socialization of famine relief granaries, and the development of inclusive philanthropy. The above development is a testament to the fact that the social relief system of late Qing gradually moved away from the old, state-dominated model and became an integral part of the social transformation in modern China.","PeriodicalId":41223,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Chinese History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77718585","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101790
Fagen Li
According to Douglass C. North’s theory of institutional change, institutions are “the rules of the game in a society” or “the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction,” and institutional change “shapes the way society evolve through time and hence is the key to understanding historical change.” Similarly, Qian Mu points out that the key to promote social transformation and development relies not just on destroying old traditions but establishing new institutions. Moreover, the longer the tradition, the firmer it stands, so there also needs to be proper boundaries for institutional changes. In imperial China, the civil service examination (keju) system existed for more than 1,300 years and became an essential part of the overall structure of Chinese politics, society, and culture. It significantly shaped the history of China. No wonder some scholars view the abolition of keju as the most revolutionary change in modern China or even the entire Chinese history. In September 1905, the Qing court announced to cease all levels of civil service examinations, which in fact signaled the end of the keju system. This event did not ignite many discussions at that time. However, after more than one hundred years, its impact has become a topic of heated debate even beyond the academia. This article offers a review of the abundant recent scholarship on this issue. In the past, assuming the value of reform and revolution, the literature almost praised the abolition of keju without any criticism for a long time based on a progressivist view that the keju system was responsible for the stagnation and weakness of late imperial China. In recent thirty years, more scholars have started to reflect on the negative impacts of abolishing the examinations on the process of modern Chinese history.
根据道格拉斯·c·诺斯(Douglass C. North)的制度变迁理论，制度是“社会中的游戏规则”或“人类设计的制约因素，这些制约因素塑造了人类的互动”，制度变迁“塑造了社会随着时间的推移而演变的方式，因此是理解历史变迁的关键”。钱穆同样指出，推动社会转型和发展的关键不在于破除旧传统，而在于建立新的制度。此外，传统的时间越长，它就越牢固，因此也需要为制度变革设定适当的边界。在帝制中国，科举制度存在了1300多年，成为中国政治、社会和文化整体结构的重要组成部分。它极大地塑造了中国的历史。难怪一些学者认为废除科举是近代中国乃至整个中国历史上最具革命性的变化。1905年9月，清廷宣布停止各级科举考试，这实际上标志着科举制度的终结。这件事在当时并没有引起很多讨论。然而，一百多年后，它的影响甚至成为学术界以外的一个激烈争论的话题。本文对近年来关于这一问题的大量研究进行了综述。在过去，文学以改革和革命的价值观，基于一种进步主义的观点，认为科举制度是帝制晚期中国停滞和衰弱的原因，在很长一段时间里几乎没有批评地赞扬了科举制度的废除。近三十年来，越来越多的学者开始反思废除科举对中国近代史进程的负面影响。
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Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101792
Zaiquan Li
ABSTRACT Facing the invasion of foreign powers and the existence of consular jurisdiction, the Qing government started the legal system reform in the New Policy Reform in the 1900s. Headed by Shen Jiaben, the legal reformers followed the practice of European Continental Law and the Japanese legal system. They revised the traditional Chinese laws to achieve a legal system of lighter punishment, less cruelty and more equality. They also drafted new laws that did not exist before, such as criminal law, civil law, commercial law and procedural law. This reform broke the traditional Chinese system of legal codes in which all kinds of laws were included. The traditional Chinese legal system thus was quickly replaced by a modern legal system that composed of constitution, civil law, criminal law, civil procedure law, criminal procedure law, and administrative law. The legal reform in the late Qing, though profound and influential, reflected the characteristics of a transitional system in which the old and new coexisted and the Chinese and Western legal systems were combined.
{"title":"The reform of the legal system in the late Qing","authors":"Zaiquan Li","doi":"10.1080/17535654.2022.2101792","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17535654.2022.2101792","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Facing the invasion of foreign powers and the existence of consular jurisdiction, the Qing government started the legal system reform in the New Policy Reform in the 1900s. Headed by Shen Jiaben, the legal reformers followed the practice of European Continental Law and the Japanese legal system. They revised the traditional Chinese laws to achieve a legal system of lighter punishment, less cruelty and more equality. They also drafted new laws that did not exist before, such as criminal law, civil law, commercial law and procedural law. This reform broke the traditional Chinese system of legal codes in which all kinds of laws were included. The traditional Chinese legal system thus was quickly replaced by a modern legal system that composed of constitution, civil law, criminal law, civil procedure law, criminal procedure law, and administrative law. The legal reform in the late Qing, though profound and influential, reflected the characteristics of a transitional system in which the old and new coexisted and the Chinese and Western legal systems were combined.","PeriodicalId":41223,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Chinese History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84310183","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101787
J. Day
ABSTRACT In the Qing dynasty, the diary-form for intelligence gathering was perfected by Tulišen, whose travelogue to Central Asia allowed the Kangxi emperor’s “imperial eyes” to assume vicarious witness to that heroic journey. Prior to China’s stationing of resident ministers abroad in 1876, envoy journals similar to Tulišen’s were commonly used for information gathering. In the next three decades, the genre of envoy communication became a fertile field for trials and experimentations, as Qing diplomats adjusted their method of communication to the changing needs of the state and the prevalent media and information technology. When the Qing dynasty established China’s first bureau of foreign affairs (Waiwubu) in 1901, the modern-style “foreign office” required radically new genres for diplomatic communication, which prioritized systemization, standardization, and a complete elimination of subjective experience. These diplomatic reports, akin to Western-style bluebooks, were separated from classified information and thus designed for domestic circulation. Tracing the evolution in diplomatic communications from late imperial China to the turn of the twentieth century, this paper seeks to unpack how new views of the foreign were shaped by new genres, new media, and new diplomatic institutions.
{"title":"From envoy journals to legation reports: regulating knowledge of the world in late imperial and modern China","authors":"J. Day","doi":"10.1080/17535654.2022.2101787","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17535654.2022.2101787","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In the Qing dynasty, the diary-form for intelligence gathering was perfected by Tulišen, whose travelogue to Central Asia allowed the Kangxi emperor’s “imperial eyes” to assume vicarious witness to that heroic journey. Prior to China’s stationing of resident ministers abroad in 1876, envoy journals similar to Tulišen’s were commonly used for information gathering. In the next three decades, the genre of envoy communication became a fertile field for trials and experimentations, as Qing diplomats adjusted their method of communication to the changing needs of the state and the prevalent media and information technology. When the Qing dynasty established China’s first bureau of foreign affairs (Waiwubu) in 1901, the modern-style “foreign office” required radically new genres for diplomatic communication, which prioritized systemization, standardization, and a complete elimination of subjective experience. These diplomatic reports, akin to Western-style bluebooks, were separated from classified information and thus designed for domestic circulation. Tracing the evolution in diplomatic communications from late imperial China to the turn of the twentieth century, this paper seeks to unpack how new views of the foreign were shaped by new genres, new media, and new diplomatic institutions.","PeriodicalId":41223,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Chinese History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74894918","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101794
J. Qiu
ABSTRACT Du Fengzhi, a county magistrate in Guangdong province in the late Qing dynasty, recorded hundreds of legal cases in his diary. In addition to the details of cases and the process of dealing, he also recorded his own observations, doubts, analyses, judgments and deliberations. The diary reflected not only how he dealt with cases, but also the reasons for his decisions. From the diary, we know that Du’s actual judicial power far exceeded the provisions of the Qing law. However, the judicial resources he possessed and the political and social reality he faced often made it difficult for him to deal with legal cases abiding by the statute law, and in many cases the truth could not even be found at all. Therefore, he often ignored the evidence of the case and dealt with them in violation of law. His first consideration was to maintain his position in the officialdom, safeguard his own economic interests and reduce trouble. He also paid attention to the unwritten rules of officialdom and the comments of local gentries. In some cases, he showed his compassion for the poor, orphans and the widowed as well. This article discusses two cases in detail to reflect Du’s various deliberations in dealing with legal cases.
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Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101791
Wenjie Li
ABSTRACT The government decision-making in the middle and late Qing Dynasty was mainly shown in the process of how government documents and memorials to the emperor were dealt with. Officials who were authorized with the right to submit memorials to the emperor drafted reports on the state affairs to ask for permissions or offer their own opinions, and the emperor replied to them with absolute power. In the late Qing, the Grand Council (Junjichu), the Six Boards (Bu), Zongli Yamen and other institutions were frequently consulted during the two periods of the empress dowagers’ “administering the state affairs behind the curtain” (chui lian ting zheng), so the higher officials’ role in dealing with state affairs gradually increased. The monarch’s routine approval of higher officials’ suggestions made these institutions to a large extent participated in the daily decision-making. However, the monarch’s authority of final decision-making remained unchanged until the establishment of Yuan Shikai’s cabinet in November 1911 when all government affairs followed the cabinet orders. Then the monarch’s decision-making power became void, and the Qing was actually turned into a constitutional monarchy.
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Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2022.2101793
Zenghe Liu
ABSTRACT In the late Qing, due to frequent large-scale wars, the Board of Revenue (hubu) and provincial treasuries were often in a state of great difficulties, struggling to support the wartime needs. After the central government was forced to delegate the authority of fundraising, tax collection and expenditure to the provinces, the provincial governments had to rely on themselves to relieve financial difficulties. Hence, within the centralized and unified traditional fiscal system, the provincial finance was getting stronger, forming the new pattern that the central and provincial governments had equal control of finance. The allocation system of the national financial resources changed from the direct appropriation of funds from the Board of Revenue to the appropriation according to needs of provinces based on consultations with the provinces. In the later period of the Guangxu reign, the central government actively introduced the western fiscal budget system in order to solve the financial problems and prevent chaos. In revenue and expenditure, the Qing government adhered to the traditional principle of “adjusting expenditure according to the income” (liang ru wei chu), while in the wartime or when the demand of funds substantially increased due to the enforcement of the New Policy Reform, it became trapped in the predicament between the traditional principle and the new principle of “adjusting income according to the expenditure” (liang chu wei ru). When the modern budget system was implemented in the late Qing, the central government resolutely put into effect the above two principles into practical budgetary planning, trying to balance between the steady and the positive policies for expanding financial resources. However, the fiscal reform failed to save the Qing government from ultimate falling after the 1911 Revolution started.
{"title":"Changes in China’s fiscal system in the late Qing","authors":"Zenghe Liu","doi":"10.1080/17535654.2022.2101793","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17535654.2022.2101793","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In the late Qing, due to frequent large-scale wars, the Board of Revenue (hubu) and provincial treasuries were often in a state of great difficulties, struggling to support the wartime needs. After the central government was forced to delegate the authority of fundraising, tax collection and expenditure to the provinces, the provincial governments had to rely on themselves to relieve financial difficulties. Hence, within the centralized and unified traditional fiscal system, the provincial finance was getting stronger, forming the new pattern that the central and provincial governments had equal control of finance. The allocation system of the national financial resources changed from the direct appropriation of funds from the Board of Revenue to the appropriation according to needs of provinces based on consultations with the provinces. In the later period of the Guangxu reign, the central government actively introduced the western fiscal budget system in order to solve the financial problems and prevent chaos. In revenue and expenditure, the Qing government adhered to the traditional principle of “adjusting expenditure according to the income” (liang ru wei chu), while in the wartime or when the demand of funds substantially increased due to the enforcement of the New Policy Reform, it became trapped in the predicament between the traditional principle and the new principle of “adjusting income according to the expenditure” (liang chu wei ru). When the modern budget system was implemented in the late Qing, the central government resolutely put into effect the above two principles into practical budgetary planning, trying to balance between the steady and the positive policies for expanding financial resources. However, the fiscal reform failed to save the Qing government from ultimate falling after the 1911 Revolution started.","PeriodicalId":41223,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Chinese History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83412385","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-03DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2021.2100608
Qing-Ping Zhu
{"title":"The “Bipolar disorder” of civilization: the entanglement of disasters and history","authors":"Qing-Ping Zhu","doi":"10.1080/17535654.2021.2100608","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17535654.2021.2100608","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41223,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Chinese History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76824281","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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