ABSTRACT This article connects to the discussion on skills and knowledge during the early industrialisation. It focuses on how two out of four technical secondary schools in Sweden (Malmö and Borås) lived up to their aims communicated by politicians and other stakeholders: to provide emerging industries and crafts in their regions with technicians and to prepare for studies at the Technological Institute. Initially, a majority of students came from the school regions, but the share of long-distance students increased over time. A majority served in industry and craft, and the study reflects chemistry’s and electricity’s breakthrough with increasing shares of graduates employed over time. Several graduates continued to further studies; not only at the Technological Institute but also elsewhere in Sweden and abroad. As for the purpose to provide the regions with technicians, the results are ambiguous. Many graduates, especially from Borås, moved to other parts of Sweden and abroad. Malmö graduates stayed more often in the school region because Malmö was a larger city, and the school region more industrially diversified. The brain-drain from the school regions was not necessarily problematic as in-migration of technicians from other schools compensated.
{"title":"A technical workforce for regional industrial development? Origin and dispersion of graduates from the technical secondary schools in Malmö and Borås 1855–1930","authors":"Fay Lundh Nilsson, Per-Olof Grönberg","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2021.1901776","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901776","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This article connects to the discussion on skills and knowledge during the early industrialisation. It focuses on how two out of four technical secondary schools in Sweden (Malmö and Borås) lived up to their aims communicated by politicians and other stakeholders: to provide emerging industries and crafts in their regions with technicians and to prepare for studies at the Technological Institute. Initially, a majority of students came from the school regions, but the share of long-distance students increased over time. A majority served in industry and craft, and the study reflects chemistry’s and electricity’s breakthrough with increasing shares of graduates employed over time. Several graduates continued to further studies; not only at the Technological Institute but also elsewhere in Sweden and abroad. As for the purpose to provide the regions with technicians, the results are ambiguous. Many graduates, especially from Borås, moved to other parts of Sweden and abroad. Malmö graduates stayed more often in the school region because Malmö was a larger city, and the school region more industrially diversified. The brain-drain from the school regions was not necessarily problematic as in-migration of technicians from other schools compensated.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"273 - 299"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901776","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43610623","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT In 1915 and 1916, nearly one half of the total tonnage engaged in the trade of the UK was flying foreign flags. The Northern Neutrals, comprising the three Scandinavian countries, accounted for a large share of the neutral merchant fleet. A new set of detailed regional freight rate indices covering the period 1910–1920 provides the basis for comparing earnings from different trades during the First World War. This article shows that the UK authorities directed neutral tonnage into routes that were more hazardous but also much less remunerative than alternative trade routes in Asia and America. Thus, the price of neutrality comprised both loss of tonnage and foregone freight earnings for Scandinavian shipping. The new data series also form the basis of a discussion of how the wartime shipping controls created economic inefficiencies by distorting the shipping trade.
{"title":"The price of neutrality: ocean freight rates and shipping policy towards the Northern Neutrals during the First World War","authors":"J. T. Klovland","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2021.1901777","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901777","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In 1915 and 1916, nearly one half of the total tonnage engaged in the trade of the UK was flying foreign flags. The Northern Neutrals, comprising the three Scandinavian countries, accounted for a large share of the neutral merchant fleet. A new set of detailed regional freight rate indices covering the period 1910–1920 provides the basis for comparing earnings from different trades during the First World War. This article shows that the UK authorities directed neutral tonnage into routes that were more hazardous but also much less remunerative than alternative trade routes in Asia and America. Thus, the price of neutrality comprised both loss of tonnage and foregone freight earnings for Scandinavian shipping. The new data series also form the basis of a discussion of how the wartime shipping controls created economic inefficiencies by distorting the shipping trade.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"300 - 319"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901777","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41581404","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT This study contributes to long-run inequality discussions by presenting a new series of Finnish income inequality statistics for the years 1865–2019. It shows that income inequality rose and peaked during the industrialisation phase at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Overall, top income shares decreased during the first part of the twentieth century, mainly as a result of shocks to capital (e.g. civil war, WWI & WWII) and rising taxation. After 1948, income inequality rebounded slightly until the advent of the welfare state in the mid-1960s. The role of redistribution through taxes and transfers strengthened and inequality decreased considerably until the late 1980s. During the 1990s, however, income inequality significantly increased, which was driven by capital incomes in the top income groups. Moreover, top income taxes started to diminish already in the late 1970s, and a great taxation reform was enacted in the 1990s, which partly explains the growing income inequality. In contrast, income inequality has remained at relatively similar levels in the twenty-first century.
{"title":"Income inequality in Finland, 1865–2019","authors":"Petri Roikonen","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2021.1901774","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901774","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This study contributes to long-run inequality discussions by presenting a new series of Finnish income inequality statistics for the years 1865–2019. It shows that income inequality rose and peaked during the industrialisation phase at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Overall, top income shares decreased during the first part of the twentieth century, mainly as a result of shocks to capital (e.g. civil war, WWI & WWII) and rising taxation. After 1948, income inequality rebounded slightly until the advent of the welfare state in the mid-1960s. The role of redistribution through taxes and transfers strengthened and inequality decreased considerably until the late 1980s. During the 1990s, however, income inequality significantly increased, which was driven by capital incomes in the top income groups. Moreover, top income taxes started to diminish already in the late 1970s, and a great taxation reform was enacted in the 1990s, which partly explains the growing income inequality. In contrast, income inequality has remained at relatively similar levels in the twenty-first century.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"234 - 251"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901774","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42430597","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Swedish economists in the 1930s debate on economic planning","authors":"Rikard Westerberg","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2021.1901778","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901778","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"69 1","pages":"195 - 196"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-03-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2021.1901778","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45207138","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT This paper examines the specificities of interpersonal credit networks in both a rural and an urban setting in pre-industrial Finland. To analyse peer-to-peer lending, the article studies a sample of 1047 probate inventories from the town of Kristinestad and its surrounding rural area, the parish of Lappfjärd. These probate inventories feature more than 5000 credit relations between households for the period 1850–1855 and 1905–1914. This paper also concerns itself with the changes pertaining to the advent of banking institutions in the mid-nineteenth century. Traditional behavioural sciences argue that formal institutions replaced informal ones because they are more efficient, more inclusive, or both. No longer needed, informal institutions are supposed to have disappeared when formal ones emerged. But this argument does not consider the social context – or embeddedness, a term coined by Granovetter – and the individuals evolving in it. Embeddedness does not disappear. Therefore, one may ask how banks penetrated communities and the credit networks that were already in place in order to supplant private lending. Tools from social network analysis help to draw insights into the features and changes pertaining to credit networks.
{"title":"The evolution of credit networks in pre-industrial Finland","authors":"E. Dermineur","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2021.1884594","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2021.1884594","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This paper examines the specificities of interpersonal credit networks in both a rural and an urban setting in pre-industrial Finland. To analyse peer-to-peer lending, the article studies a sample of 1047 probate inventories from the town of Kristinestad and its surrounding rural area, the parish of Lappfjärd. These probate inventories feature more than 5000 credit relations between households for the period 1850–1855 and 1905–1914. This paper also concerns itself with the changes pertaining to the advent of banking institutions in the mid-nineteenth century. Traditional behavioural sciences argue that formal institutions replaced informal ones because they are more efficient, more inclusive, or both. No longer needed, informal institutions are supposed to have disappeared when formal ones emerged. But this argument does not consider the social context – or embeddedness, a term coined by Granovetter – and the individuals evolving in it. Embeddedness does not disappear. Therefore, one may ask how banks penetrated communities and the credit networks that were already in place in order to supplant private lending. Tools from social network analysis help to draw insights into the features and changes pertaining to credit networks.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"57 - 86"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2021.1884594","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43943634","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT In light of the ongoing extensive discussion concerning the increasing financial risk levels of the household sector in modern, credit-based societies, this study explores the level and structure of credit markets in nineteenth century Sweden. The growing international research focusing on informal credit markets outside formalised institutions has demonstrated that credit was abundantly and pervasively included in the lion’s share of all inter-personal financial relationships in early modern Europe. In this particular study, based on probate inventories and the inverted mortality method, the changing structure of nineteenth century credit market is estimated for the living population. The household financial situation is studied as life-cycle indebtedness and as debt ratios in relation to income, wealth and financial assets and how these ratios evolved during the transformation from a predominately agrarian to a more commercialised, monetised and industrialised economy in Sweden during the nineteenth century. The source material for this article consists of more than 5800 household probate inventories from Southern and Central Sweden, including three rural and two urban areas. The geographical selection is based on a sample utilised in a wider research project. It permits comparisons of debt structures not only between rural and urban areas, but also among different regions within Sweden.
{"title":"‘Over-indebtedness’ – or not? Household debt accumulation and risk exposure in nineteenth century Sweden","authors":"H. Lindgren","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2021.1879242","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2021.1879242","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In light of the ongoing extensive discussion concerning the increasing financial risk levels of the household sector in modern, credit-based societies, this study explores the level and structure of credit markets in nineteenth century Sweden. The growing international research focusing on informal credit markets outside formalised institutions has demonstrated that credit was abundantly and pervasively included in the lion’s share of all inter-personal financial relationships in early modern Europe. In this particular study, based on probate inventories and the inverted mortality method, the changing structure of nineteenth century credit market is estimated for the living population. The household financial situation is studied as life-cycle indebtedness and as debt ratios in relation to income, wealth and financial assets and how these ratios evolved during the transformation from a predominately agrarian to a more commercialised, monetised and industrialised economy in Sweden during the nineteenth century. The source material for this article consists of more than 5800 household probate inventories from Southern and Central Sweden, including three rural and two urban areas. The geographical selection is based on a sample utilised in a wider research project. It permits comparisons of debt structures not only between rural and urban areas, but also among different regions within Sweden.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"33 - 56"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-02-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2021.1879242","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45976588","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT The article analyses Russian peasants’ differentiation in the late 19th to early 20th centuries, addressing issues related to transformation of the peasantry's socio-economic standing during the market economy formation period. Combining statistical data analysis and using a multilevel model on peasants’ welfare in the province of Simbirsk, we find that a high level of inequality existed in the region at the time of the census; that inequality within a county contributes more toward income inequality than inequality between counties. Based on different statistical resources, we also plot the graphs and calculate the Gini indices for provinces for which data on the distribution of land, horses, and cows by individual farms are available. Our results do not support Chayanov's hypothesis on the correlation between the number of peasant family members and the amount of land in their possession. Our results indicate that communes were losing their ‘equalising’ function. For most provinces, the Gini index had been rising over time, indicating increasing inequality. Most importantly, this increase occurred in a relatively short period—much faster than in other countries—thereby making Russia more socially and politically vulnerable.
{"title":"Peasants’ inequality and stratification: evidence from pre-revolutionary Russia","authors":"N. Rozinskaya, A. Sorokin, D. Artamonov","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2020.1830166","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2020.1830166","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The article analyses Russian peasants’ differentiation in the late 19th to early 20th centuries, addressing issues related to transformation of the peasantry's socio-economic standing during the market economy formation period. Combining statistical data analysis and using a multilevel model on peasants’ welfare in the province of Simbirsk, we find that a high level of inequality existed in the region at the time of the census; that inequality within a county contributes more toward income inequality than inequality between counties. Based on different statistical resources, we also plot the graphs and calculate the Gini indices for provinces for which data on the distribution of land, horses, and cows by individual farms are available. Our results do not support Chayanov's hypothesis on the correlation between the number of peasant family members and the amount of land in their possession. Our results indicate that communes were losing their ‘equalising’ function. For most provinces, the Gini index had been rising over time, indicating increasing inequality. Most importantly, this increase occurred in a relatively short period—much faster than in other countries—thereby making Russia more socially and politically vulnerable.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"69 1","pages":"253 - 277"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2020-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2020.1830166","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49604750","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT In 1729, the privately owned Diving and Salvage Company gained a national monopoly for sea salvage in the Swedish Realm, a position it held until 1803. The Company sold all salvaged ships and goods in public auctions, creating a lively salvage market in Swedish and Finnish port towns. In this article, I examine these auctions and their economic impact in two towns, Visby and Helsinki. Via effective organisation and skilful advertising, the Company was able to sell large quantities of salvaged ships, ship parts, and cargo to a large pool of buyers. The auctions had large economic impact and were an especially important factor in the late eighteenth century rise of shipping and shipbuilding in both Helsinki and Visby. The local merchants controlled the auctions and bought all ship material in bulk, recycling it to the new-built ships in their dockyards.
{"title":"Wreckage recycled. Salvage auctions and their economic impact in eighteenth century Sweden","authors":"Juha-Matti Granqvist","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2020.1843530","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2020.1843530","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In 1729, the privately owned Diving and Salvage Company gained a national monopoly for sea salvage in the Swedish Realm, a position it held until 1803. The Company sold all salvaged ships and goods in public auctions, creating a lively salvage market in Swedish and Finnish port towns. In this article, I examine these auctions and their economic impact in two towns, Visby and Helsinki. Via effective organisation and skilful advertising, the Company was able to sell large quantities of salvaged ships, ship parts, and cargo to a large pool of buyers. The auctions had large economic impact and were an especially important factor in the late eighteenth century rise of shipping and shipbuilding in both Helsinki and Visby. The local merchants controlled the auctions and bought all ship material in bulk, recycling it to the new-built ships in their dockyards.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"219 - 233"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2020-12-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2020.1843530","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44110213","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT The regulation of bank capital has evolved from minimum capital requirements for joint-stock banks to elaborate risk-based capital adequacy rules. How did these regulations come about? How and why have they changed over time in different coutnries? Sweden began to regulate minimum capital in the nineteenth century. In 1911 an early version of capital adequacy was introduced. In addition to stringent regulation a separate inspection agency was given wide-ranging powers to ensure compliance. Britain also had minimum capital rules in place but during the twentieth century these two countries followed different paths in regulation and supervision of capital rules. This paper examines the Swedish case in detail and contrasts that with the British case. It is suggested that their respective civil and common law traditions may explain the divergent approaches to defining and regulating capital adequacy.
{"title":"The evolution of capital adequacy rules – the contrasting cases of Sweden and Britain","authors":"Åsa Malmström Rognes","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2020.1843528","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2020.1843528","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The regulation of bank capital has evolved from minimum capital requirements for joint-stock banks to elaborate risk-based capital adequacy rules. How did these regulations come about? How and why have they changed over time in different coutnries? Sweden began to regulate minimum capital in the nineteenth century. In 1911 an early version of capital adequacy was introduced. In addition to stringent regulation a separate inspection agency was given wide-ranging powers to ensure compliance. Britain also had minimum capital rules in place but during the twentieth century these two countries followed different paths in regulation and supervision of capital rules. This paper examines the Swedish case in detail and contrasts that with the British case. It is suggested that their respective civil and common law traditions may explain the divergent approaches to defining and regulating capital adequacy.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"19 - 32"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2020-11-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2020.1843528","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48193578","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT Finland and the Soviet Union had a special trade partnership based on bilateral clearing trade and payment system and five-year agreements 1952–1990. While other market economies, and eventually even socialist countries, opted for multilateral trade and convertible currencies, the clearing system was popular in Finland until its termination. The end of the bilateral trade was a surprise for many, but this article shows how the continuance of the Finnish-Soviet bilateral trade had been under discussion from the 1960s onwards. This article examines the agency and attitude of the Finnish foreign trade administration in questions related to the continuance of the bilateral trade system. It underlines three aspects. Firstly, the bilateral clearing trade and payment system was not self-evident but a choice and as a choice it had political and economic consequences. Secondly, the decision to maintain the clearing system was a negotiation and in this negotiation both Finland and the Soviet Union had agency. Finally, the meanings connected to the clearing trade and payment system were not stabile but changed over time.
{"title":"Negotiating bilateralism: the Finnish-Soviet clearing trade and payment system, 1952–1990","authors":"Saara Matala","doi":"10.1080/03585522.2020.1843529","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2020.1843529","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Finland and the Soviet Union had a special trade partnership based on bilateral clearing trade and payment system and five-year agreements 1952–1990. While other market economies, and eventually even socialist countries, opted for multilateral trade and convertible currencies, the clearing system was popular in Finland until its termination. The end of the bilateral trade was a surprise for many, but this article shows how the continuance of the Finnish-Soviet bilateral trade had been under discussion from the 1960s onwards. This article examines the agency and attitude of the Finnish foreign trade administration in questions related to the continuance of the bilateral trade system. It underlines three aspects. Firstly, the bilateral clearing trade and payment system was not self-evident but a choice and as a choice it had political and economic consequences. Secondly, the decision to maintain the clearing system was a negotiation and in this negotiation both Finland and the Soviet Union had agency. Finally, the meanings connected to the clearing trade and payment system were not stabile but changed over time.","PeriodicalId":43624,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW","volume":"70 1","pages":"87 - 107"},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2020-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/03585522.2020.1843529","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48668978","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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