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Returns in the Labor Market: A Nuanced View of Penalties at the Intersection of Race and Gender in the US 劳动力市场的回报:对美国种族和性别交叉点惩罚的细致观察
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-03-29 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2042472
M. Paul, Khaing Zaw, W. Darity
There have been decades of research on wage gaps for groups based on their socially salient identities, such as race and gender, but little empirical investigation on the effects of holding multiple identities. Using the Current Population Survey, this study provides new evidence on intersectionality and the wage gap in the US. This article makes two important contributions. First, there is no single “gender” or “race” wage penalty. Second, the evidence suggests that holding multiple identities cannot readily be disaggregated in an additive fashion. Instead, in a comparison of Black and White workers across gender, this study documents that the penalties associated with the combination of two or more socially marginalized identities interact in multiplicative or quantitatively nuanced ways. Further, the findings demonstrate that the presence of an additional intersectional penalty for Black women persists across time. HIGHLIGHTS When it comes to earnings, Black women face distinctive penalties for holding their race and gender identities simultaneously. The intersectional wage gap persists across time and during both tight and slack labor markets. The unexplained portion of the wage gap has contracted from 1980–2017; however, it remains large and significant. Intersectional analysis provides a useful framework to disentangle nuances in the labor market.
几十年来,人们一直在研究基于种族和性别等社会突出身份的群体的工资差距,但很少有关于持有多重身份的影响的实证调查。利用当前人口调查,本研究为美国的交叉性和工资差距提供了新的证据。本文做出了两个重要贡献。首先,没有单一的“性别”或“种族”工资惩罚。其次,证据表明,持有多重身份不能轻易地以累加的方式分解。相反,在对不同性别的黑人和白人员工的比较中,这项研究证明,两种或两种以上社会边缘化身份的结合所带来的惩罚以乘法或定量微妙的方式相互作用。此外,研究结果表明,黑人女性的额外交叉惩罚持续存在。在收入方面,黑人女性因同时持有种族和性别身份而面临着特殊的惩罚。无论在劳动力市场紧张还是疲软时期,这种交叉工资差距都会持续存在。从1980年到2017年,工资差距中无法解释的部分有所缩小;然而,它仍然是巨大而重要的。交叉分析为理清劳动力市场的细微差别提供了一个有用的框架。
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引用次数: 18
Gender Differences in Immigrant Assimilation Activities in the US: Evidence from Time-Use Data 美国移民同化活动中的性别差异:来自时间使用数据的证据
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-02-09 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.2015538
F. Muchomba, Neeraj Kaushal
This study uses the American Time Use Survey for 2003–17 to explore gender differences in time allocated toward activities that facilitate immigrant assimilation, including activities outside the home, with non-family members, and in paid work, education, and shopping. The study finds that among the first and 1.5 generations, respectively, wives spend seventy-nine and thirty-one minutes less per day than husbands in market work, education, and shopping, whereas there is no gender gap among second, 2.5, and third-and-higher generations. Moreover, in first- and 1.5-generation families, husbands spend more time on activities outside the home and with non-family members. This pattern suggests that time used in assimilation activities among first- and 1.5-generation families reflects gender inequality, which could increase women’s dependence on husbands for assimilation. Women from countries with conservative gender roles allocate less time to assimilation activities, but this association dissipates across generations. HIGHLIGHTS This study investigates whether assimilation increases or reduces gender inequality across immigrant generations. Time allocation is more gendered among first-generation immigrants. There is no such gender gap among second and higher generations. Women from countries with traditional gender norms spend less time on assimilation activities. But this association dissipates across generations.
这项研究利用2003-17年的美国时间使用调查来探索在促进移民同化的活动中分配的时间的性别差异,包括家庭外、与非家庭成员以及有偿工作、教育和购物中的活动。研究发现,在第一代和1.5代人中,妻子每天在市场工作、教育和购物方面的花费分别比丈夫少79分钟和31分钟,而在第二代、2.5代、第三代及更高一代人中没有性别差距。此外,在第一代和1.5代家庭中,丈夫花更多的时间在家庭之外和与非家庭成员的活动上。这种模式表明,第一代和1.5代家庭同化活动所用的时间反映了性别不平等,这可能会增加妇女对丈夫同化的依赖。来自性别角色保守的国家的女性分配给同化活动的时间较少,但这种联系会在几代人之间消散。亮点这项研究调查了同化是否会增加或减少移民世代之间的性别不平等。第一代移民的时间分配更加性别化。第二代和更高一代之间没有这种性别差距。来自具有传统性别规范的国家的妇女花在同化活动上的时间较少。但这种关联会在几代人之间消散。
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引用次数: 2
The Impact of Marriage on Women's Employment in the Middle East and North Africa 婚姻对中东和北非妇女就业的影响
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-01-21 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.2007415
R. Assaad, C. Krafft, Irène Selwaness
Marriage is a central stage in the transition to adulthood in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). This article investigates the effect of marriage on women's employment in MENA, examining how different types of work are affected by relatively early marriage, defined as marriage by the median age of marriage. An important contribution of this study is to examine the two main mechanisms by which marriage can affect work: (1) its effect on ever entering work and (2) its effect on exiting work. This study endogenizes the marriage decision using an instrumental variables approach. It finds that marriage by the median age reduces women's probability of market work by 47 percent in Jordan, 30 percent in Tunisia, and 16 percent in Egypt. Much of the effect is due to a reduction in the probability of private wage work, which women tend to leave at marriage. HIGHLIGHTS Women in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia often leave employment at marriage. Marrying by the median age has varying effects on different types of employment. Women are particularly likely to leave private sector wage work at marriage. Changes are needed to reconcile private wage employment with women's domestic roles.
在中东和北非,婚姻是向成年过渡的核心阶段。本文调查了婚姻对中东和北非地区妇女就业的影响,考察了不同类型的工作如何受到相对早婚的影响,即按结婚年龄中位数定义的婚姻。这项研究的一个重要贡献是考察了婚姻影响工作的两个主要机制:(1)婚姻对不断进入工作的影响和(2)婚姻对退出工作的影响。本研究采用工具变量法对婚姻决策进行内生分析。研究发现,在约旦,按中位年龄结婚会使女性从事市场工作的可能性降低47%,在突尼斯降低30%,在埃及降低16%。这种影响很大程度上是由于私人带薪工作的可能性降低,而女性往往会在结婚后离开。亮点埃及、约旦和突尼斯的妇女经常在结婚时离职。按中位年龄结婚对不同类型的就业有不同的影响。妇女结婚后特别有可能离开私营部门从事有薪工作。需要做出改变,使私人带薪就业与妇女的家庭角色相协调。
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引用次数: 13
Family Size and Men’s Labor Market Outcomes: Do Social Beliefs About Men’s Roles in the Family Matter? 家庭规模与男性劳动力市场结果:关于男性在家庭中的角色的社会观念重要吗?
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-01-20 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.2015076
A. Baranowska-Rataj, A. Matysiak
This article provides evidence on the relationship between fathers’ labor market outcomes and number of children. Using data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions and instrumental variable models, this study examines how family size is related to fathers’ probability of employment, number of paid working hours, job rank, wages, and job stability across European countries with diverse social beliefs about men’s financial and caregiving responsibilities. Results show that having a larger family is associated with increases in fathers’ share of paid working hours, chances of having a permanent contract and a managerial position, and wages. These findings are, however, largely due to selection. Net of selection, fathers tend to increase paid working hours and are more likely to be promoted after childbirth only in countries where they are considered the main income providers, and acceptance of involved fatherhood is weak. The magnitude of these effects is small, however. HIGHLIGHTS Family size is positively correlated with fathers’ labor market outcomes in Europe. Having more children is associated with higher job rank, wages, and job stability. Multiple births are the source of exogenous variation in the number of children. Net of selection, family size premium for fathers depends on gender ideologies. In less-egalitarian countries, family size brings more labor market rewards.
这篇文章为父亲的劳动力市场结果和子女数量之间的关系提供了证据。本研究使用来自欧盟收入和生活条件统计数据和工具变量模型的数据,考察了家庭规模与父亲就业概率、带薪工作时间、工作级别、工资和工作稳定性之间的关系,这些国家对男性的经济和照顾责任有着不同的社会观念。研究结果显示,家庭规模越大,父亲的带薪工作时间份额越大,获得长期合同和管理职位的机会越大,工资也越高。然而,这些发现在很大程度上是由于选择。除了选择之外,只有在父亲被认为是主要收入提供者的国家,他们才倾向于增加带薪工作时间,并且更有可能在分娩后得到晋升,而且对参与父亲身份的接受程度较低。然而,这些影响的幅度很小。在欧洲,家庭规模与父亲的劳动力市场结果呈正相关。有更多的孩子与更高的职位、工资和工作稳定性有关。多胞胎是子女数量外生变异的来源。在选择上,父亲的家庭规模优势取决于性别意识。在不那么平等的国家,家庭规模带来更多的劳动力市场回报。
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引用次数: 7
Non-Parental Childcare Services and Time Allocation of Mothers with Young Children in China 中国非父母托儿服务与带幼儿母亲的时间分配
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-01-13 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.2006736
Jing Liu, L. Qi, Yanyan Xiong
This study explores the impact of access to and affordability of paid and unpaid childcare services on the time allocation of mothers with children ages 0–6. The study employs a fixed-effect seemingly unrelated regression model on longitudinal data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey for 2004–11, when women’s employment in China was declining rapidly. The study finds that holding constant other determinants, doubling daily wages of nannies and tuition fees of childcare centers tends to reduce a mother’s market work time by 5.2 and 1.3 h per week and increases her time spent on housework by 1.7 and 0.5 h per week, respectively. Mothers who live with an older, woman relative spend 5.5 h fewer per week on childcare. Access to local childcare centers reduces mothers’ time spent on childcare by 13.3 h per week, and these mothers’ wage rates have no effect on their time allocation. HIGHLIGHTS In China, rising parenting costs contribute to declines in women’s labor participation rate and the fertility rate. Increasing prices of childcare services reduce mother’s time on paid work and increase time on housework. Access to childcare has no impact on mothers’ time on activities beyond childcare. The government should subsidize early childhood education as it subsidizes elementary education. Childcare leave and flexible work arrangements may alleviate mothers’ time burdens.
本研究探讨了有偿和无偿托儿服务的可及性和可负担性对0-6岁儿童母亲时间分配的影响。该研究采用了一种看似不相关的固定效应回归模型,对2004-11年中国健康与营养调查的纵向数据进行分析,当时中国妇女的就业率正在迅速下降。研究发现,在其他决定因素不变的情况下,保姆的日工资和托儿中心的学费翻一番,往往会使母亲每周的市场工作时间分别减少5.2和1.3小时,家务劳动时间分别增加1.7和0.5小时。与年长的女性亲戚住在一起的母亲每周花在照顾孩子上的时间会减少5.5小时。进入当地托儿中心可以使母亲每周花在照看孩子上的时间减少13.3小时,而这些母亲的工资水平对她们的时间分配没有影响。在中国,不断上升的养育成本导致女性劳动参与率和生育率下降。托儿服务价格的上涨减少了母亲从事有偿工作的时间,增加了做家务的时间。获得托儿服务对母亲从事托儿以外活动的时间没有影响。政府应该像资助基础教育一样资助幼儿教育。育儿假和灵活的工作安排可能会减轻母亲的时间负担。
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引用次数: 1
A Multidimensional Approach to the Gender Gap in Poverty: An Application for Turkey 解决贫困性别差距的多维方法:在土耳其的应用
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2021-12-20 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.2003837
Hasan Tekgüç, Bengi Akbulut
Conventional poverty measures have long been criticized as a poor gauge of quality of life. Household-level income or expenditure data used in these measures are silent on intrahousehold inequalities and capture means to an end rather than outcomes and opportunities individuals face. This article constructs a multidimensional poverty index (MPI) to address these problems. It calculates multidimensional poverty for Turkey in four equally weighted dimensions: education, health, employment, and household living conditions. The study introduces employment as a distinct dimension of well-being, which is especially pertinent for the gender gap in poverty in the Turkish context. It finds a significant (30–34 percent) gender poverty gap, which is gradually narrowing over time. However, there is very little convergence between regions. Finally, results show households with multidimensionally poor women and non-poor men as the most common sub-group and an increase in the share of households with no poor members. HIGHLIGHTS The study evaluates the multidimensional poverty of individuals to analyze gender gaps. Employment proxies for ignored functionings like self-respect and social inclusion. Gender poverty gap was between 30 and 34 percent during 2006–15. Gender poverty gap is only closing for the youngest cohorts. Within-household poverty disparities are high and stable during 2006–15.
传统的贫困衡量标准长期以来一直被批评为衡量生活质量的标准不佳。这些措施中使用的家庭收入或支出数据对家庭内部的不平等保持沉默,捕捉的是达到目的的手段,而不是个人面临的结果和机会。本文构建了多维贫困指数(MPI)来解决这些问题。它从教育、健康、就业和家庭生活条件四个同等权重的维度来计算土耳其的多维贫困。该研究介绍了就业作为福利的一个独特方面,这与土耳其贫困中的性别差距特别相关。报告发现存在显著的性别贫困差距(30 - 34%),随着时间的推移,这一差距正在逐渐缩小。然而,区域之间几乎没有趋同。最后,结果显示,有多维贫困妇女和非贫困男子的家庭是最常见的子群体,没有贫困成员的家庭所占比例有所增加。该研究评估了个人的多维贫困,以分析性别差距。就业代表了被忽视的功能,如自尊和社会包容。2006 - 2015年,性别贫困差距在30%至34%之间。性别贫困差距只在最年轻的人群中缩小。2006 - 2015年期间,家庭内部的贫困差距很大且很稳定。
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引用次数: 5
A Gendered Analysis of Individual-Level Asset Poverty in Ecuador 厄瓜多尔个人层面资产贫困的性别分析
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2021-12-07 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.1995019
Boaz Anglade, P. Useche, C. D. Deere
This study uses individual-level wealth data to explore the gender dimensions of asset poverty among the principal adults in Ecuadorean households, the first such study in a developing country. The study departs from conventional practice by analyzing not only sole heads but also partnered men and women heads and show systematic differences by gender, marital status, and household type. Among both sole and partnered heads, women are more likely to be asset poor than men. Further, in contrast to developed countries, asset poverty rates are much higher among partnered men and women than among sole men and women heads, largely because of structural factors that put those in consensual unions at a disadvantage in accumulating assets. The gender gap, however, is much larger among sole heads. In Ecuador, the risk of asset poverty is mainly associated with low levels of education, type of employment, and not having received an inheritance. HIGHLIGHTS This study uses individual-level asset data to explore the extent of asset poverty in Ecuador. Women in Ecuador are more likely to be asset poor compared to men. The gender asset gap is more prominent among sole heads of household. Asset poverty rates are the highest among women in consensual unions. Education, employment, and inheritance significantly explain asset poverty.
本研究使用个人层面的财富数据来探索厄瓜多尔家庭中主要成年人资产贫困的性别维度,这是在发展中国家进行的首次此类研究。此次研究不仅分析了单身的头,还分析了有伴侣的男人和女人的头,这与传统研究不同,显示了性别、婚姻状况、家庭类型等方面的系统性差异。在单身和合伙人中,女性比男性更有可能资产贫乏。此外,与发达国家相比,有伴侣的男性和女性的资产贫困率远高于单身的男性和女性,这主要是因为结构性因素使那些自愿结合的人在积累资产方面处于不利地位。然而,性别差异在单头鲨中要大得多。在厄瓜多尔,资产贫困的风险主要与教育水平低、就业类型低以及没有继承遗产有关。本研究使用个人层面的资产数据来探讨厄瓜多尔资产贫困的程度。与男性相比,厄瓜多尔的女性更有可能处于资产贫乏状态。性别资产差距在单身户主中更为突出。在自愿结合的女性中,资产贫困率最高。教育、就业和继承是资产贫困的重要原因。
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引用次数: 1
Cash for Care as Special Money: The Meaning and Uses of the Care Allowance in Close Relationships in the Czech Republic 作为特殊货币的护理现金:护理津贴在捷克共和国亲密关系中的意义和用途
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2021-11-27 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.1988126
Radka Dudová
ABSTRACT Investigating what happens when money in the form of a cash-for-care benefit enters family relationships, this article examines long-term family care in the Czech Republic where a “care allowance” was introduced in 2007. It compares two qualitative studies: one of adult children providing care to their parents and the other of mothers caring for a disabled child; in both cases, the adults are entitled to the benefit. The studies used narrative and in-depth interviews with forty-eight informal caregivers. Daughters providing care mostly earmarked the allowance as their parent’s money or did not claim it at all, while sons viewed it as a contribution to pay for care services. Mothers interpreted it as compensation for their caring work. The different practices of earmarking special monies affirmed and maintained gendered normative expectations, thus explaining why the introduction of the benefit did not lead to the outcomes expected by policymakers. HIGHLIGHTS The introduction of a care allowance in the Czech Republic did not have the expected outcomes. The use of allowance money varied in cases of caring for a parent or child with disability. Gendered norms of care determined how the money was used. The most significant of these norms was that care should be provided personally and by women. The discretionary use of allowance money did not serve to improve caregivers’ economic situations.
摘要:为了调查当现金换护理福利进入家庭关系时会发生什么,本文考察了2007年引入“护理津贴”的捷克共和国的长期家庭护理。它比较了两项定性研究:一项是成年子女照顾父母,另一项是母亲照顾残疾儿童;在这两种情况下,成年人都有权获得福利。这些研究对48名非正式护理人员进行了叙述和深入访谈。提供照顾的女儿大多把这笔津贴当作父母的钱,或者根本不要求,而儿子则认为这是支付照顾服务的一种贡献。母亲们认为这是对她们照顾孩子工作的补偿。指定专款用途的不同做法肯定并维持了性别化的规范性期望,从而解释了为什么福利的引入没有带来政策制定者所期望的结果。捷克共和国护理津贴的引入并没有产生预期的结果。在照顾残疾父母或子女的情况下,津贴的使用情况各不相同。护理的性别规范决定了这笔钱的使用方式。这些准则中最重要的是护理应由个人和妇女提供。随意使用津贴并不能改善照顾者的经济状况。
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引用次数: 1
Male Backlash and Female Guilt: Women’s Employment and Intimate Partner Violence in Urban India 男性反冲与女性内疚:印度城市女性就业与亲密伴侣暴力
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2021-11-25 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.1986226
S. Dhanaraj, Vidya Mahambare
This study investigates the relationship between a married woman’s paid work participation and her exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) in urban India. Results show that due to the male backlash channel, women in employment face significantly higher levels of IPV compared to women involved in domestic work only. The study does not find evidence that any autonomy women gain by doing paid work lowers their experience of IPV. Furthermore, this paper contributes to the literature on gender-based violence by introducing and testing for a “female guilt channel” – a phenomenon in which women in paid work justify IPV against them more than those not in paid work – that, in turn, further raises their IPV exposure. The paper finds weak evidence for the guilt channel in the overall sample and stronger evidence among women with intermediate levels of education. HIGHLIGHTS Women in paid work in urban India are more likely to accept intimate partner violence (IPV), as well as experience a higher degree of marital controlling behavior by husbands. Urban women and men with tertiary education are most likely to overcome gendered norms for paid work. IPV is higher among urban women in paid work whose husbands are not employed or earning less. Raising women’s economic opportunities alone may not lead to universally better outcomes for them inside households.
本研究调查了印度城市已婚妇女的有偿工作参与与亲密伴侣暴力(IPV)之间的关系。结果表明,由于男性的反冲渠道,就业妇女面临的IPV水平明显高于只从事家务劳动的妇女。该研究没有发现任何证据表明女性通过从事有偿工作获得的自主权会降低她们的IPV经历。此外,本文通过引入和测试“女性内疚渠道”——一种从事有偿工作的女性比不从事有偿工作的女性更有理由对她们实施IPV的现象——为基于性别的暴力的文献做出了贡献,这反过来又进一步提高了她们遭受IPV的风险。该论文发现,在整个样本中,内疚通道的证据不足,而在中等教育水平的女性中,证据更强。在印度城市从事有偿工作的女性更容易接受亲密伴侣暴力(IPV),同时也更容易遭受丈夫的婚姻控制行为。受过高等教育的城市妇女和男子最有可能克服有偿工作的性别规范。在从事有偿工作的城市妇女中,丈夫没有工作或收入较低的妇女的IPV更高。仅仅提高妇女的经济机会可能不会给她们在家庭中带来普遍更好的结果。
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引用次数: 10
The Double Burden of Being A Woman and Obese: Evidence from the Chilean Labor Market 女性与肥胖的双重负担——来自智利劳动力市场的证据
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2021-11-24 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2021.1988127
Mauricio Sarrias, Victor Iturra
This study analyzes the labor market dimension of a worldwide social concern: the growing level of obesity. Using detailed, individual information of Chilean workers, the study finds a strong evidence of a wage penalty for women as body size increases, whereas men seemingly enjoy a wage premium for being overweight. Several hypotheses are tested for explaining this finding and results suggest that the gender wage gap between obese and non-obese workers is not related to observed productivity differences, risk aversion, or health limitations. For women, the wage penalty is mostly explained by occupational crowding and the “beauty premium” in high-skilled occupations. Finally, this study outlines possible avenues that future research should address. HIGHLIGHTS Women are more likely to experience a weight penalty in labor markets than men. Heavier women earn less per hour than thinner coworkers in Chile. Overweight men experience a wage premium. Wage differences between obese and non-obese women cannot be explained by observable endowments. The wage penalty is larger in occupations requiring more social interactions.
这项研究分析了世界范围内社会关注的劳动力市场层面:日益增长的肥胖水平。该研究利用智利工人的详细个人信息,发现了强有力的证据,表明随着体型的增加,女性会受到工资惩罚,而男性似乎会因超重而享受额外的工资。为了解释这一发现,对几个假设进行了测试,结果表明,肥胖和非肥胖工人之间的性别工资差距与观察到的生产力差异、风险厌恶或健康限制无关。对于女性来说,工资惩罚主要是由职业拥挤和高技能职业的“美容溢价”来解释的。最后,本研究概述了未来研究应解决的可能途径。亮点女性在劳动力市场上比男性更容易受到体重惩罚。在智利,身材较胖的女性每小时的收入低于身材较瘦的同事。超重的男性会得到额外的工资。肥胖和非肥胖女性之间的工资差异不能用可观察到的禀赋来解释。在需要更多社会互动的职业中,工资惩罚更大。
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引用次数: 2
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