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Gender Wage Gap, Gender Norms, and Long-Term Care: A Theoretical Framework 性别工资差距、性别规范与长期护理:一个理论框架
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-07-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2081353
Ignacio González, B. Seo, M. Floro
ABSTRACT Population aging in developed and developing economies has led to increasing number of older persons in need of care, posing a challenge to the social arrangements of care and creating important aggregate economic implications. This article proposes a simple theoretical framework to evaluate the interplay of gender norms and the gender wage gap, as well as specific characteristics of the paid care market such as occupational segregation and market power rents. By incorporating a degree of substitutability between women’s and men’s care work, the model shows how declines in the gender wage gap have small effects on the division of long-term care work in the presence of persistent gender norms. The study also shows that market power dynamics, in conjunction with gender norms, perpetuate reliance on women’s provision of unpaid care. The model has important implications for policies promoting gender-egalitarian household division of labor and affordable access to quality long-term care. HIGHLIGHTS The market logic of the paid care service sector must be analyzed in conjunction with gender norms. A declining gender wage gap does not translate to more equal sharing of long-term care work due to persistent traditional gender norms. Social norms shape the response of the distribution of care work to changes in market prices and perpetuate reliance on women’s unpaid care. Gender-aware policies should encourage egalitarian social norms to reduce women’s unpaid care burden.
在发达国家和发展中国家,人口老龄化导致越来越多的老年人需要照顾,这对照顾的社会安排提出了挑战,并产生了重要的总体经济影响。本文提出了一个简单的理论框架来评估性别规范与性别工资差距的相互作用,以及有偿护理市场的具体特征,如职业隔离和市场权力租金。通过纳入女性和男性护理工作之间一定程度的可替代性,该模型表明,在存在持续的性别规范的情况下,性别工资差距的下降如何对长期护理工作的分工产生很小的影响。研究还表明,市场力量的动态与性别规范相结合,使人们长期依赖妇女提供无偿护理。该模型对促进性别平等的家庭劳动分工和负担得起的高质量长期护理的政策具有重要意义。有偿护理服务部门的市场逻辑必须结合性别规范进行分析。由于持续存在的传统性别规范,性别工资差距的缩小并没有转化为更平等地分担长期护理工作。社会规范决定了护理工作的分配对市场价格变化的反应,并使人们长期依赖妇女的无偿护理。有性别意识的政策应鼓励平等的社会规范,以减少妇女的无偿照顾负担。
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引用次数: 0
Does Knowledge Empower? Education, Legal Awareness, and Intimate Partner Violence 知识赋予力量吗?教育、法律意识和亲密伴侣暴力
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-05-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2061029
Bilge Erten, P. Keskin
ABSTRACT This article exploits the rollout of the 1997 Basic Education Program in Turkey, a reform that extended compulsory school attendance, to estimate the causal effects of education on women’s awareness of laws designed to reduce gender inequality and prevent domestic violence. The study implements a regression-discontinuity design and finds that the additional years of schooling improved women’s legal awareness. Women exposed to the education reform were more likely to have heard about the new laws and services through newspapers, journals, or books. However, despite these improvements, the study finds no evidence of a significant change in the risk of women experiencing domestic violence or their ability to quit abusive relationships. HIGHLIGHTS Multiple barriers undermine women’s access to the justice system in Turkey. Education reform helped remove one such barrier: women’s legal awareness of their rights. However, legal awareness did not translate into significant changes in incidence of domestic violence. Raising awareness is a necessary first step but not enough to empower women to access to legal institutions.
本文利用1997年土耳其基础教育计划(一项扩大义务教育入学率的改革)的推出,来估计教育对妇女对旨在减少性别不平等和防止家庭暴力的法律意识的因果影响。该研究采用了非连续性回归设计,发现额外的受教育年限提高了女性的法律意识。接触到教育改革的妇女更有可能通过报纸、期刊或书籍了解到新的法律和服务。然而,尽管有这些改善,研究发现没有证据表明妇女遭受家庭暴力的风险或她们摆脱虐待关系的能力有重大变化。在土耳其,多重障碍阻碍了妇女进入司法系统。教育改革帮助消除了其中一个障碍:妇女对自己权利的法律意识。然而,法律意识并没有转化为家庭暴力发生率的重大变化。提高认识是必要的第一步,但还不足以使妇女有能力进入法律机构。
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引用次数: 5
The Gendered Outbreak of COVID-19 in South Korea COVID-19在韩国的性别爆发
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-19 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2057565
Jinwoo Lee
ABSTRACT Although South Korea is well-known for its aggressive response to COVID-19, little is known about how the risk of infection manifests differently by gender. Using real-time data on confirmed cases, this study empirically examines the gendered outbreak of COVID-19 driven by occupational segregation in South Korea. It investigates gender differences in risk of work-related exposure, particularly for those jobs where essential activities are conducted, such as in the healthcare sector, and that are dominated by women. The results from the multinomial logit model confirm that women have a higher risk of workplace exposure than men, particularly in pink-collar and care jobs. The findings emphasize the need for a gender-aware perspective to policy measures advanced during the pandemic and recovery. HIGHLIGHTS Gender is an important factor for determining infection risks of COVID-19 in workplaces. In South Korea’s gender-segregated labor markets, women have higher exposure to infection than men. Women typically occupy jobs in the healthcare and welfare sectors that require frequent interpersonal interaction. They are also underrepresented in occupations with the ability to telecommute. Policy measures must include gender-aware responses and address inequality during the pandemic and recovery.
摘要尽管韩国以其对新冠肺炎的积极应对而闻名,但人们对感染风险如何因性别而异知之甚少。本研究利用确诊病例的实时数据,实证研究了韩国职业隔离导致的新冠肺炎的性别暴发。它调查了与工作相关的暴露风险的性别差异,特别是那些从事基本活动的工作,如医疗保健部门,并且由女性主导。多项logit模型的结果证实,女性在工作场所暴露的风险高于男性,尤其是在粉领和护理工作中。调查结果强调,在疫情和复苏期间推进的政策措施需要有性别意识。重点性别是决定工作场所新冠肺炎感染风险的重要因素。在韩国性别隔离的劳动力市场中,女性比男性更容易受到感染。妇女通常在需要频繁人际交往的医疗保健和福利部门工作。在具有远程办公能力的职业中,他们的代表性也不足。政策措施必须包括有性别意识的应对措施,并解决疫情和复苏期间的不平等问题。
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引用次数: 0
Heterogeneous Firms in International Markets and Gender Inequalities: New Evidence from Vietnam 国际市场中的异质企业与性别不平等:来自越南的新证据
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-10 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2056224
Nicola Daniele Coniglio, Rezart Hoxhaj
ABSTRACT Recent contributions in international economics have highlighted structural differences between firms actively participating in global markets and firms mostly operating in the domestic economy. Using firm-level data from Vietnam, this study found that foreign and domestic firms with global ties – exporters, multinational enterprises (MNEs), and domestic firms belonging to global value chains (GVCs) – play an important role in reducing gendered differences in employment opportunities in the formal sector, in particular for low-skilled women workers. Women workers are more likely than men workers to be employed in low-wage firms, but this gender gap is lower in MNEs, in particular those belonging to GVCs. This study provides evidence of important within-sector heterogeneity not only based on firms’ ownership but also on the intensity of participation in GVCs. HIGHLIGHTS Global economic interactions can shape gender inequalities in the labor markets of developing countries. In Vietnam, firms with complex global networks promote a more gender-balanced development trajectory. Foreign and domestic firms participating in global value chains boost employment opportunities but mostly for low-skilled women. Firms’ participation in international markets has limited effects on the reduction of gender inequality in wages.
最近国际经济学的贡献强调了积极参与全球市场的企业与主要在国内经济中经营的企业之间的结构性差异。本研究利用越南企业层面的数据发现,具有全球联系的国内外企业——出口商、跨国企业(MNEs)和属于全球价值链(GVCs)的国内企业——在减少正规部门就业机会的性别差异方面发挥着重要作用,尤其是对低技能女工而言。女性工人比男性工人更有可能受雇于低工资的公司,但这种性别差距在跨国公司中较低,特别是那些属于全球价值链的跨国公司。该研究提供了重要的部门内异质性的证据,不仅基于公司的所有权,而且基于参与全球价值链的强度。全球经济互动会影响发展中国家劳动力市场的性别不平等。在越南,拥有复杂全球网络的公司促进了更加性别平衡的发展轨迹。参与全球价值链的国内外公司增加了就业机会,但主要是低技能妇女。企业参与国际市场对减少工资方面的性别不平等影响有限。
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引用次数: 0
Gender and Mandated Benefits: The Impact of Israeli Reserve Duty on Wages 性别与法定福利:以色列储备税对工资的影响
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2044499
J. Olmsted, Edward Sayre
Neoclassical theory suggests that mandated benefits drive a wedge between the wages of those that receive benefits and those who do not. Much of the empirical literature focuses on family leave programs that primarily benefit women. In Israel, two major mandated benefits are family leave and military reserve leave. This study exploits differences in the pattern of benefits/leave probabilities for men and women, Jews and non-Jews, as well as changes to the structure of reserve duty in the mid 1990s to see if employers respond to anticipated leave changes by adjusting wages. It finds that younger Jewish men made small gains relative to older Jewish men, but that young Jewish women made even greater gains during this period, suggesting little evidence that employers adjusted wages in response to the change in reserve duty requirements in Israel. This finding contributes to evidence suggesting gendered political and cultural factors shape wages. HIGHLIGHTS In Israel, mandated maternity leave and reserve duty leave are similar in terms of cost to employers. This provides a unique opportunity for analyzing how employers respond to costs associated with such leaves by gender. Israeli reserve soldiers, comprised almost exclusively of Jewish men, do not experience a wage penalty. Findings challenge standard neoclassical labor theory, which argues that higher cost workers earn lower wages. Wage determination is driven not just by economic factors, but also cultural and political ones.
新古典理论认为,强制福利在领取福利者和未领取福利者的工资之间造成了隔阂。许多实证文献都集中在主要惠及妇女的家庭假计划上。在以色列,规定的两项主要福利是探亲假和预备役军人假。这项研究利用了男性和女性、犹太人和非犹太人的福利/休假概率模式的差异,以及20世纪90年代中期储备税结构的变化,以了解雇主是否通过调整工资来应对预期的休假变化。研究发现,与年长的犹太男性相比,年轻的犹太男性获得了较小的收益,但年轻的犹太女性在这一时期获得了更大的收益,这表明几乎没有证据表明雇主会根据以色列储备税要求的变化调整工资。这一发现为性别政治和文化因素影响工资提供了证据。亮点在以色列,强制产假和预备役产假在雇主成本方面相似。这为分析雇主如何按性别应对与此类休假相关的成本提供了一个独特的机会。以色列预备役士兵几乎全部由犹太男子组成,他们不会受到工资惩罚。研究结果挑战了标准的新古典劳动理论,该理论认为成本较高的工人工资较低。工资的决定不仅受经济因素的驱动,也受文化和政治因素的驱动。
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引用次数: 0
Women’s Self-Employment as a Developmental Strategy: The Dual Constraints of Care Work and Aggregate Demand 妇女自主就业作为一种发展战略:护理工作和总需求的双重制约
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2044497
R. Vasudevan, S. Raghavendra
The promotion of self-employment through financial inclusion initiatives has been adopted as a means of harnessing the entrepreneurial and productive capacities of women within the neoliberal developmental policy framework. This study presents a simple analytical model in the Post-Keynesian tradition to investigate the linkages between self-employment, aggregate demand, and unpaid care work by developing a two-sector model. It shows that a developmental strategy based on fostering women’s self-employment is constrained, on the one hand, by the macroeconomic conditions driving aggregate demand and, on the other, by the trade-off between the time allocation between unpaid care and paid work that the gendered division of care work responsibilities imposes on the self-employed woman worker. The promotion of self-employment cannot serve as a viable development strategy without policies that directly boost aggregate demand and at the same time relieve the burden of care responsibilities on women through public investment and social provision of care. HIGHLIGHTS Self-employment is too often uncritically prescribed as a vehicle for improving women’s livelihoods. Increased self-employment creates competing claims on women’s time between paid work and unpaid care. Women’s self-employment perpetuates gendered asymmetries of care responsibilities within the household. Macroeconomic demand conditions constrain the potential for women’s self-employment to increase livelihoods and support development. Financial inclusion policies alone have limited scope in sustaining women’s self-employment.
通过金融包容性举措促进自营职业已被采纳为在新自由主义发展政策框架内利用妇女创业和生产能力的一种手段。本研究提出了后凯恩斯主义传统中的一个简单分析模型,通过开发两个部门模型来调查自营职业、总需求和无偿护理工作之间的联系。它表明,一方面,基于促进妇女自营职业的发展战略受到推动总需求的宏观经济条件的制约,另一方面,由于照顾工作责任的性别划分强加给自营职业女工的无偿照顾和有偿工作之间的时间分配的权衡。如果没有直接促进总需求、同时通过公共投资和社会护理减轻妇女护理责任的政策,促进自营职业就不能成为一项可行的发展战略。亮点自营职业往往被不加批判地规定为改善妇女生计的工具。自营职业的增加在有偿工作和无偿护理之间对妇女的时间提出了相互竞争的要求。妇女的自营职业使家庭中照顾责任的性别不对称现象长期存在。宏观经济需求条件限制了妇女自营职业增加生计和支持发展的潜力。仅金融包容性政策在维持妇女自营职业方面的作用有限。
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引用次数: 1
Can Multi-Sectoral Development Interventions Boost Livelihoods and Women’s Labor Supply? Evidence from NRLM in India 多部门发展干预措施能否促进生计和妇女劳动力供应?来自印度NRLM的证据
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2037684
V. Pandey, Abhishek Gupta
ABSTRACT Diversifying household livelihoods and increasing women’s labor force participation is a major developmental challenge in South Asia. Multi-sectoral development approaches can provide better economic opportunities and women’s employment simultaneously. This study provides evidence on the livelihoods and women’s labor supply impacts of the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), a $5.1 billion livelihoods initiative. The study matches primary data from 4,202 households and 726 villages using the 2011 Population Census and the 2012 Socio-Economic and Caste Census. The instrumental variable estimates suggest that participation in NRLM is associated with an improvement in the number of household livelihoods by 0.707, livelihood diversification by 0.13σ, and women’s working participation rate (WPR) by 15.4 percent. The study identifies two sets of channels, namely, formation of productive assets and access to formal credit, through which NRLM influenced livelihoods and women’s WPR. Heterogeneous program effects suggest that women in socially and economically deprived households benefitted most. HIGHLIGHTS The study highlights India’s National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), the world’s largest livelihoods initiative. NRLM improved opportunities for women’s gainful employment in farm and nonfarm productive activities. The program’s impact reflects the efficacy of multi-sectoral development interventions. It relies on a unique multi-sectoral approach that mobilizes rural poor women into SHGs and their federations. The study argues for interventions that influence gender roles in the context of rural growth and development.
摘要多样化的家庭生计和提高妇女劳动力参与度是南亚发展面临的重大挑战。多部门发展办法可以同时提供更好的经济机会和妇女就业。这项研究为国家农村生计特派团(NRLM)的生计和妇女劳动力供应影响提供了证据,该特派团是一项51亿美元的生计倡议。该研究使用2011年人口普查和2012年社会经济和种姓普查,匹配了4202户家庭和726个村庄的主要数据。工具变量估计表明,参与NRLM与家庭生计数量提高0.707、生计多样化提高0.13σ和妇女工作参与率提高15.4%有关。该研究确定了两组渠道,即生产性资产的形成和获得正式信贷的途径,NRLM通过这些渠道影响生计和妇女的WPR。不同方案的效果表明,社会和经济贫困家庭的妇女受益最多。亮点该研究重点介绍了印度国家农村生计使命(NRLM),这是世界上最大的生计倡议。NRLM改善了妇女在农业和非农生产活动中获得有酬就业的机会。该方案的影响反映了多部门发展干预措施的效果。它依靠一种独特的多部门方法,动员农村贫困妇女加入SHG及其联合会。该研究主张采取干预措施,在农村增长和发展的背景下影响性别角色。
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引用次数: 1
A Macroeconomic Analysis of the Effects of Gender Inequality, Wages, and Public Social Infrastructure: The Case of the UK 性别不平等、工资和公共社会基础设施影响的宏观经济分析:以英国为例
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2044498
Özlem Onaran, Cem Oyvat, Eurydice Fotopoulou
The aim of this study is to develop a model to analyze the macroeconomic effects of two dimensions of inequality – gender inequality and functional income distribution – and public spending, in particular on social infrastructure, on output, productivity, and hours of employment of men and women. This study estimates the model econometrically using an IV-GMM estimator and time series data for the period of 1970–2016 for the UK. For the estimation of productivity, the article uses IV-GMM estimations based on panel data for eighteen industries for the period of 1970–2015. The study finds that output in the UK is both gender equality-led and wage-led, and hence generally equality-led. Public social infrastructure investment has a high positive effect on both output and employment. Despite a strong positive effect on productivity, the employment of both men and women increases in the medium run. HIGHLIGHTS Output in the UK is gender equality-led and wage-led; hence the UK is equality-led. An upward convergence in wages by closing gender pay gaps leads to higher output. Public social infrastructure spending has a positive effect on output and productivity. Public social infrastructure leads to higher employment for both men and women. A mix of labor market and fiscal policies can achieve both equality and employment.
本研究的目的是建立一个模型,分析不平等的两个维度——性别不平等和功能性收入分配——以及公共支出,特别是社会基础设施、产出、生产力和男女就业时间的宏观经济影响。本研究使用IV-GMM估计器和英国1970-2016年期间的时间序列数据对模型进行了计量估计。对于生产力的估计,本文使用了基于1970-2015年期间18个行业面板数据的IV-GMM估计。研究发现,英国的产出既以性别平等为主导,又以工资为主导,因此总体上以平等为主导。公共社会基础设施投资对产出和就业都有很大的积极影响。尽管对生产力产生了巨大的积极影响,但从中期来看,男性和女性的就业都有所增加。英国的产出以性别平等为主导,以工资为主导;因此,英国是平等主导的。通过缩小性别薪酬差距,工资向上趋同会带来更高的产出。公共社会基础设施支出对产出和生产力有积极影响。公共社会基础设施为男性和女性带来了更高的就业率。劳动力市场和财政政策的结合可以实现平等和就业。
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引用次数: 6
Is Migration in Africa always a Household Decision? Consensus and Contestation in the Rural–Urban Migration Decisions of Ghanaian Women 非洲的移民总是由家庭决定的吗?加纳妇女城乡移民决策中的共识与争议
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2042473
Lynda Pickbourn
The dominant theoretical framework for analyzing migration in Africa rests on the assumption of cooperative intrahousehold decision making regarding the mobility of household members. This framework, applied to women’s migration, overlooks the varied decision-making processes underlying their mobility, and obscures their ability to act as purposeful agents in making decisions about migration. Drawing on a study of women’s rural–urban migration in Ghana, this article argues that women’s migration decisions exist on a continuum defined by the presence or absence of intrahousehold contestation and the degree of agency exercised by the migrants themselves. Consequently, household models of migration may not always be the appropriate theoretical framework for the analysis of women’s migration in this context. The findings presented have implications for economic analyses of women’s migration and remittances, for our understanding of migrant women’s capacity for agency, and for the design of effective policies to improve migration outcomes for women. HIGHLIGHTS The study directly elicits information from women about their migration decisions. Women’s migration is the outcome of complex decision-making processes. The dichotomy between household and individual models of migration ignores these complexities.
分析非洲移民的主要理论框架建立在关于家庭成员流动性的家庭内部合作决策的假设之上。这一框架适用于妇女移民,忽视了她们流动性背后的各种决策过程,并掩盖了她们作为有目的的代理人做出移民决策的能力。根据对加纳妇女农村-城市移民的研究,本文认为,妇女的移民决定存在于一个连续体上,该连续体由是否存在家庭内部竞争和移民自身行使的代理权程度来定义。因此,在这种情况下,家庭移徙模式可能并不总是分析妇女移徙的适当理论框架。所提出的调查结果对妇女移民和汇款的经济分析、我们对移民妇女的代理能力的理解以及制定有效政策以改善妇女移民成果都有影响。亮点这项研究直接从妇女那里获得了关于她们移民决定的信息。妇女移徙是复杂决策过程的结果。家庭和个人移民模式之间的二分法忽略了这些复杂性。
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引用次数: 0
The Evolution of Gender Wealth Inequality in the United States in a Changing Institutional Context 制度变迁背景下美国性别财富不平等的演变
IF 4.6 2区 经济学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2042583
H. Szymborska
This article analyzes the patterns of household-level gender wealth inequality in light of financial sector transformation in the US since the 1980s. Securitization, the subprime lending expansion, and wider liberalization measures influenced wealth disparities by determining access to different types of wealth, asset values, and relative indebtedness. The evolution of the gender wealth gap in the context of these institutional changes is not yet clearly established in the literature. Using the US Survey of Consumer Finances between 1989 and 2019, the study examines changes in wealth inequality between unpartnered male-headed and female-headed households and its determinants. It finds substantial heterogeneity of the gender wealth gap, and within-group inequality for female-headed households, across different categories of marital status, family structure, race/ethnicity, and percentile of wealth distribution. Homeownership is estimated to have an equalizing impact, while differences in employment income, age, self-employment, and ownership of high-yielding assets are associated with increasing wealth disparities. HIGHLIGHTS The study examines the unconditional and conditional wealth gaps across unpartnered households. Gender wealth inequality increased in the subprime era and after the Great Recession. The highest inequality is observed across marital status, family structure, and race. The highest inequality is found among the least wealthy households. Wealth inequality can be lowered by reducing disparities in income and asset ownership.
本文以20世纪80年代以来美国金融业转型为背景,分析了家庭层面的性别财富不平等模式。证券化、次级贷款扩张和更广泛的自由化措施通过决定获得不同类型财富、资产价值和相对负债的途径,影响了财富差距。在这些制度变化的背景下,性别财富差距的演变尚未在文献中明确确立。该研究利用1989年至2019年的美国消费者财务调查,研究了无伴侣男户主和女户主家庭之间财富不平等的变化及其决定因素。研究发现,在婚姻状况、家庭结构、种族/民族和财富分配百分位数的不同类别中,性别财富差距和女性户主家庭的群体内不平等存在很大的异质性。据估计,住房所有权具有均衡性影响,而就业收入、年龄、自营职业和高收益资产所有权的差异与日益扩大的财富差距有关。该研究考察了无伴侣家庭的无条件和有条件财富差距。在次贷时代和大衰退之后,性别财富不平等加剧。婚姻状况、家庭结构和种族之间的不平等程度最高。贫富差距最大的是最不富裕的家庭。财富不平等可以通过减少收入和资产所有权的差距来降低。
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引用次数: 2
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