Differential coverage across demographic groups in a census or survey can reduce the accuracy and representativeness of the resulting statistics. Researchers traditionally have used community-level measures to study response behavior and coverage, which can obscure patterns for small population groups. We illustrate this using household-level citizenship and immigration status. We construct household-level characteristics using administrative records for each address in a randomized control trial (RCT) survey that measured the effects of including a citizenship question on a decennial census questionnaire. Our results show that the self-response rate to the questionnaire without the citizenship question ranges from 70.4% in households with only U.S.-born non-Hispanic Whites to 27.5% in those with at least one likely undocumented person (a 42.9 percentage point gap). Including the citizenship question widens the gap by a statistically significant 2.4 percentage points. Compared to households with all U.S.-born non-Hispanic Whites, the household roster omission rate in households with at least one likely undocumented member is 6.0 times higher without the citizenship question and 10.4 times higher with the question. These patterns help explain why administrative record-based population data include more non-citizens than survey-based official statistics.
{"title":"Citizenship question effects on household survey response","authors":"J. David Brown, Misty L. Heggeness","doi":"10.1002/pam.70004","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.70004","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Differential coverage across demographic groups in a census or survey can reduce the accuracy and representativeness of the resulting statistics. Researchers traditionally have used community-level measures to study response behavior and coverage, which can obscure patterns for small population groups. We illustrate this using household-level citizenship and immigration status. We construct household-level characteristics using administrative records for each address in a randomized control trial (RCT) survey that measured the effects of including a citizenship question on a decennial census questionnaire. Our results show that the self-response rate to the questionnaire without the citizenship question ranges from 70.4% in households with only U.S.-born non-Hispanic Whites to 27.5% in those with at least one likely undocumented person (a 42.9 percentage point gap). Including the citizenship question widens the gap by a statistically significant 2.4 percentage points. Compared to households with all U.S.-born non-Hispanic Whites, the household roster omission rate in households with at least one likely undocumented member is 6.0 times higher without the citizenship question and 10.4 times higher with the question. These patterns help explain why administrative record-based population data include more non-citizens than survey-based official statistics.</p>","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"45 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/pam.70004","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Green Gentrification and Environmental Injustice: A Complexity Approach to Policy by Heather E. Campbell, Adam Eckerd, and Yushim Kim. Springer Cham, 2024, 202 pp., $179.99 (hardcover).","authors":"Shanti Gamper-Rabindran","doi":"10.1002/pam.70006","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.70006","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 3","pages":"1113-1117"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143665841","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Erasing History: How Fascists Rewrite the Past to Control the Future by Jason Stanley. Simon & Schuster, 2024, 256 pp.","authors":"Valeria Umanets","doi":"10.1002/pam.70008","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.70008","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 4","pages":"1505-1508"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143635318","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A commonly expressed concern about distributional weighting in benefit-cost analysis is that the informational burden is too high and the practical challenges insurmountable. In this paper, we address this concern by conducting distributional weighting on a number of real-world examples, covering a range of different types of policy impacts. We uncover and explore a number of methodological issues that arise in the process of distributional weighting and provide a simplified set of steps that we believe can be implemented by practitioners with a wide range of expertise. We conduct sensitivity analysis and Monte Carlo simulation to test the robustness of our estimates of weighted net benefits to the various assumptions we make, and find that, in general, distributional weighting is no more vulnerable to modeling assumptions and parameter selection than unweighted benefit-cost analysis itself. We conclude that the concern about the practicability of distributional weighting is, at least in a range of important cases, unfounded.
{"title":"Practical issues in conducting distributional weighting in benefit-cost analysis","authors":"Daniel Acland, David Greenberg","doi":"10.1002/pam.22669","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.22669","url":null,"abstract":"<p>A commonly expressed concern about distributional weighting in benefit-cost analysis is that the informational burden is too high and the practical challenges insurmountable. In this paper, we address this concern by conducting distributional weighting on a number of real-world examples, covering a range of different types of policy impacts. We uncover and explore a number of methodological issues that arise in the process of distributional weighting and provide a simplified set of steps that we believe can be implemented by practitioners with a wide range of expertise. We conduct sensitivity analysis and Monte Carlo simulation to test the robustness of our estimates of weighted net benefits to the various assumptions we make, and find that, in general, distributional weighting is no more vulnerable to modeling assumptions and parameter selection than unweighted benefit-cost analysis itself. We conclude that the concern about the practicability of distributional weighting is, at least in a range of important cases, unfounded.</p>","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 2","pages":"632-662"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2025-03-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143599962","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
We study how civilian complaint investigators affect officer behavior in Chicago. We exploit quasi-random assignment of complaints to supervising investigators and use variation in whether supervisors tend to acquire sworn affidavits that substantiate the complaints. When the assigned investigator opens more investigations through obtaining affidavits, accused officers accumulate fewer complaints in the first three months of the investigation. We find that, prior to a scandal, assignment to high-investigation supervisors causes officers to make more arrests. However, this reverses after the scandal. Our findings suggest that police watchdogs can improve officer behavior in ordinary oversight environments but may backfire in heightened oversight environments.
{"title":"Strengthening police oversight: The impacts of misconduct investigators on police officer behavior","authors":"Andrew Jordan, Taeho Kim","doi":"10.1002/pam.70002","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.70002","url":null,"abstract":"<p>We study how civilian complaint investigators affect officer behavior in Chicago. We exploit quasi-random assignment of complaints to supervising investigators and use variation in whether supervisors tend to acquire sworn affidavits that substantiate the complaints. When the assigned investigator opens more investigations through obtaining affidavits, accused officers accumulate fewer complaints in the first three months of the investigation. We find that, prior to a scandal, assignment to high-investigation supervisors causes officers to make more arrests. However, this reverses after the scandal. Our findings suggest that police watchdogs can improve officer behavior in ordinary oversight environments but may backfire in heightened oversight environments.</p>","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 4","pages":"1286-1316"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143532764","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In this essay, I seek to reconcile critical and econometric approaches to diagnosing the causes of deep racial inequalities in child welfare system outcomes. Using a series of causal diagrams and critical engagement with the counterfactual causal model, I suggest policy analysts embrace a theoretical framework for quantitative inference that recognizes the complex ways that racism impacts families, places, and policy systems. Common approaches that partition inequalities into risk and bias components normatively imply that some inequalities are legitimate and some illegitimate. As we push toward foundational reform in how policy systems work with children and families, we must embrace analytic approaches that 1) map more convincingly onto real-world processes and 2) take questions of equity and harm as central ethical concerns.
{"title":"Bias, risk, racism: Reconciling critical and quantitative approaches to understanding racial inequality in child welfare system outcomes","authors":"Frank Edwards","doi":"10.1002/pam.70001","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.70001","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In this essay, I seek to reconcile critical and econometric approaches to diagnosing the causes of deep racial inequalities in child welfare system outcomes. Using a series of causal diagrams and critical engagement with the counterfactual causal model, I suggest policy analysts embrace a theoretical framework for quantitative inference that recognizes the complex ways that racism impacts families, places, and policy systems. Common approaches that partition inequalities into <i>risk</i> and <i>bias</i> components normatively imply that some inequalities are legitimate and some illegitimate. As we push toward foundational reform in how policy systems work with children and families, we must embrace analytic approaches that 1) map more convincingly onto real-world processes and 2) take questions of equity and harm as central ethical concerns.</p>","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 2","pages":"693-706"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2025-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/pam.70001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143528339","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
<p>Frank Edwards has written an exceptional essay focused on reconciling critical and quantitative approaches to understanding the role of historic and contemporary racism as drivers of racial disparities in Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement in the United States. Moreover, he proposes an innovative theoretical framework with explicit empirical applications for estimating the magnitude of the effects of racism in producing these disparities. This approach, which we look forward to seeing implemented in future empirical work, holds considerable promise for increasing our understanding of the extent to which racist processes have resulted in and continue to result in Black and Native American/American Indian populations being disproportionately represented in CPS systems.</p><p>We commend Edwards on this endeavor and, on the whole, see no major areas of disagreement between his perspective and ours. We fully agree that historical and contemporary racist processes—that is, the pervasive influence of structural racism in U.S. society, including in its social and governmental institutions and their policies and practices—have ultimately resulted in racial disparities in CPS involvement in the United States, that the magnitude of the effect of racism on these disparities has not been estimated, and that estimating its magnitude will contribute to fully contextualizing the etiology, evolution, and persistence of racial disparities in CPS involvement and informing research, policies, and programs to address them. We also concur with Edwards's assessment that two particularly rigorous quantitative studies (Baron et al., <span>2024a, 2024b</span>) have found convincing evidence of caseworker bias <i>within CPS</i>, specifically with respect to foster care placement. We underscore, however, that these findings indicate that caseworkers are more likely to leave White children than Black children in homes in which they are at especially high risk of being abused or neglected. This evidence suggests that, to the extent that foster care placement of children who are at greatest risk of maltreatment in their home serves to protect those children from abuse and neglect—to promote their safety—<i>CPS may be better serving (protecting) Black children than White children</i>.</p><p>Like that of Edwards, our thinking is “informed by critical race and feminist theories of the welfare state, [which] argue that racial inequalities in CPS exposure are caused by deep structural and institutional processes.” In our view, by limiting the opportunities and resources available to Black and Native American/American Indian populations both throughout our nation's history and in the present, these processes have directly resulted in the social and economic marginalization of these populations. They have also shaped the economic and social contexts in which these populations live, leaving them disproportionately at risk of a wide range of environmental- and individual-le
{"title":"Racism and racial disparities in Child Protective Services involvement: How can government respond?","authors":"Lawrence M. Berger, Brenda Jones Harden","doi":"10.1002/pam.22679","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.22679","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Frank Edwards has written an exceptional essay focused on reconciling critical and quantitative approaches to understanding the role of historic and contemporary racism as drivers of racial disparities in Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement in the United States. Moreover, he proposes an innovative theoretical framework with explicit empirical applications for estimating the magnitude of the effects of racism in producing these disparities. This approach, which we look forward to seeing implemented in future empirical work, holds considerable promise for increasing our understanding of the extent to which racist processes have resulted in and continue to result in Black and Native American/American Indian populations being disproportionately represented in CPS systems.</p><p>We commend Edwards on this endeavor and, on the whole, see no major areas of disagreement between his perspective and ours. We fully agree that historical and contemporary racist processes—that is, the pervasive influence of structural racism in U.S. society, including in its social and governmental institutions and their policies and practices—have ultimately resulted in racial disparities in CPS involvement in the United States, that the magnitude of the effect of racism on these disparities has not been estimated, and that estimating its magnitude will contribute to fully contextualizing the etiology, evolution, and persistence of racial disparities in CPS involvement and informing research, policies, and programs to address them. We also concur with Edwards's assessment that two particularly rigorous quantitative studies (Baron et al., <span>2024a, 2024b</span>) have found convincing evidence of caseworker bias <i>within CPS</i>, specifically with respect to foster care placement. We underscore, however, that these findings indicate that caseworkers are more likely to leave White children than Black children in homes in which they are at especially high risk of being abused or neglected. This evidence suggests that, to the extent that foster care placement of children who are at greatest risk of maltreatment in their home serves to protect those children from abuse and neglect—to promote their safety—<i>CPS may be better serving (protecting) Black children than White children</i>.</p><p>Like that of Edwards, our thinking is “informed by critical race and feminist theories of the welfare state, [which] argue that racial inequalities in CPS exposure are caused by deep structural and institutional processes.” In our view, by limiting the opportunities and resources available to Black and Native American/American Indian populations both throughout our nation's history and in the present, these processes have directly resulted in the social and economic marginalization of these populations. They have also shaped the economic and social contexts in which these populations live, leaving them disproportionately at risk of a wide range of environmental- and individual-le","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 2","pages":"707-710"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2025-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/pam.22679","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143538600","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"","authors":"","doi":"10.1002/pam.22670","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22670","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 2","pages":"727"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2025-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143770534","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
<p>Black children and families are overrepresented in U.S. Child Protective Services (CPS) systems—the state and county systems responsible for receiving and responding to allegations of child maltreatment—relative to their representation in the U.S. population. They experience higher rates of CPS reports, investigations, substantiations, and child removals than White children (Children's Bureau, <span>2023, 2024</span>; Edwards et al., <span>2021</span>) and, conditional on out-of-home placement, spend more time in out-of-home care (Wulczyn, <span>2020</span>). Moreover, while Black–White differences in CPS involvement have declined substantially over the past 2 decades (Myers et al., <span>2018</span>; Roehrkasse, <span>2021</span>; Wulczyn et al., <span>2023</span>), they remain large: Black children are roughly twice as likely as White children to experience investigations, substantiations, and out-of-home placements over the course of childhood (Kim et al., <span>2017</span>; Wildeman & Emanuel, <span>2014</span>; Wildeman et al., <span>2014</span>; Yi et al., <span>2023</span>). Native American/American Indian children and families are also overrepresented at all levels of CPS involvement.1 Yet, because true underlying rates of child maltreatment are unknown, research has not established whether these disparities reflect disproportionate rates of maltreatment and, if not, whether they reflect under- or over-inclusion of either group.</p><p>It is, perhaps, unsurprising to observe disparities in CPS involvement, especially between Black and White populations. Black–White disparities are well documented for most indicators of health and social and economic wellbeing in the U.S., including income, poverty, wealth, employment, educational achievement and attainment, teen and nonmarital childbirth, family complexity and instability, morbidity and mortality, maternal and infant mortality, neighborhood quality, exposure to violence, and criminal justice involvement (Dagher & Linares, <span>2022</span>; Darity & Mullen, <span>2022</span>; Darity et al., <span>2022</span>; Drake et al., <span>2023</span>; National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, <span>2019</span>; Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, <span>2022</span>; Rothstein, <span>2017</span>). Of particular note, poverty rates for Black children are more than 3 times those for White children (U.S. Census Bureau, <span>2023</span>).</p><p>These disparities stem from historical and contemporary structural and institutional racism, oppression, and discrimination that have pervaded both public policy and social structure in the United States, and have manifested in bias against (differential treatment of or impact on) Black populations, relative to White populations (Darity & Mullen, <span>2022</span>; Darity et al., <span>2022</span>; Rothstein, <span>2017</span>). As a result, compared to their White counterparts, Black populations have a
黑人儿童和家庭在美国儿童保护服务（CPS）系统——负责接收和应对儿童虐待指控的州和县系统——中所占比例高于他们在美国人口中的比例。与白人儿童相比，他们经历了更高的CPS报告、调查、证实和儿童移除率(儿童局，2023年，2024年；Edwards et al., 2021)，并且，在有条件的家庭外安置的情况下，在家庭外护理中花费更多时间（Wulczyn, 2020）。此外，虽然在过去20年里，黑人和白人在CPS参与方面的差异已经大幅下降(Myers等人，2018；Roehrkasse, 2021;Wulczyn et al., 2023)，他们仍然很大：黑人儿童在童年时期经历调查、证实和户外安置的可能性大约是白人儿童的两倍(Kim et al., 2017；Wildeman,伊曼纽尔,2014;Wildeman et al., 2014；Yi et al., 2023)。土著美洲人/美洲印第安人的儿童和家庭在儿童服务参与的各个层面上也有过多的代表然而，由于真正的潜在儿童虐待率是未知的，研究尚未确定这些差异是否反映了不成比例的虐待率，如果不是，它们是否反映了任何一个群体的纳入不足或过度。观察到儿童护理服务参与的差异，尤其是黑人和白人之间的差异，也许并不令人惊讶。在美国，大多数健康、社会和经济福利指标上，黑人和白人之间的差异都有很好的记录，包括收入、贫困、财富、就业、教育成就和成就、青少年和非婚生育、家庭复杂性和不稳定性、发病率和死亡率、孕产妇和婴儿死亡率、社区质量、暴力暴露和刑事司法参与(Dagher &；利纳雷斯,2022;Darity,马伦,2022;Darity et al., 2022；Drake et al., 2023；美国国家科学院、工程院和医学院，2019；规划和评价助理部长办公室，2022年；Rothstein, 2017)。特别值得注意的是，黑人儿童的贫困率是白人儿童的3倍多（美国人口普查局，2023年）。这些差异源于历史和当代结构性和制度性的种族主义、压迫和歧视，这些种族主义、压迫和歧视已经渗透到美国的公共政策和社会结构中，并表现为相对于白人对黑人的偏见（差别待遇或影响）。马伦,2022;Darity et al., 2022；Rothstein, 2017)。因此，与白人相比，黑人更有可能接受劣质教育；隔离和劣质住房；贫困的学校、儿童保育设施和社区；环境毒素、有限和低质量的卫生和精神卫生服务、暴力、警察监视和选民压制政策(Braveman et al., 2022；Yearby et al., 2022)。这些因素反过来又引起了学者、政策制定者、倡导者以及在某些情况下公众的广泛关注。这些领域的不良轨迹和结果与儿童虐待和CPS参与有关(Font &；Maguire-Jack, 2020)。此外，研究已经证明收入与儿童虐待和CPS参与之间存在强烈的反比关系(Berger &；沃德福格,2011;字体,Maguire-Jack, 2020)，大多数参与cps的家庭都是低收入或贫困家庭(Berger &；松,2020)。这种黑人与白人之间的差异导致黑人人口在公共系统中的比例过高，包括补充营养援助计划（Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program）；医疗补助;妇女、婴儿和儿童特别补充营养计划；贫困家庭临时援助计划；启智计划和早期启智计划；早期干预计划；补充安全收入计划；和儿童抚养计划。黑人在刑事司法系统中的比例也过高。尽管种族差异在导致这些系统不成比例参与的因素中引起了严重关注，但在刑事司法系统中，不成比例的参与除外(例如，Blumstein, 2014；杜,2021;Roberts, 2007)，儿童保护服务(例如，Dettlaff等人，2020；罗伯茨（Roberts, 2022），以及在较小程度上，儿童抚养制度（Edin et al., 2019）本身并没有被广泛认为是有问题的，也没有引发广泛的拆除、破坏或废除它们的呼吁（尽管许多人引发了关于其成本和收益的持续辩论，并呼吁改革）。 那么，为什么CPS参与的不成比例可能被视为CPS系统对黑人家庭偏见和歧视的初步证据，而大多数其他社会系统中不成比例的参与并没有被广泛视为这些系统偏见或歧视的证据？我们认为，这反映了对CPS的取向和（感知的或实际的）影响的关注，而不是对不均衡本身的关注。也就是说，就像刑事司法系统一样，CPS经常被视为惩罚性的。事实上，CPS被描述为家庭警务和家庭监视系统(Dettlaff等人，2020；罗伯茨,2022)。相比之下，大多数其他社会福利制度——尽管对其方面存在批评——通常被视为补偿性（至少在其目的上）尝试解决先前和持续的劣势和边缘化的来源和影响。因此，我们认为，一个人是否认为CPS参与的不成比例——本身——是由CPS特定的问题驱动的，还是由整个社会驱动的，偏见在很大程度上取决于一个人是否认为CPS是惩罚性的还是补偿性的；换句话说，一个人认为它是帮助还是伤害（在帮助或惩罚的意义上）孩子和家庭。种族不成比例的系统参与是适当的和富有成效的，当它补偿了以前和现在的边缘化、压迫、劣势及其来源；当它增加边缘化、压迫和不利地位，或以其他方式伤害相关人群时，它是不适当和无益的。因此，了解CPS参与的差异是否与实际儿童虐待的差异一致，以及CPS是惩罚性的还是补偿性的，对于理解和解决这些问题至关重要。学者、政策制定者、倡导者、儿童和家庭参与CPS，以及公民对这两个因素的评估各不相同。我们承认，儿童福利文献涉及双方的争论：CPS对儿童和家庭是有益的还是有害的。然而，对CPS参与（主要是户外安置）的因果影响的最严格估计在方向、幅度和统计显著性方面产生了不一致的估计(Bald等人，2022；Berger et al., 2017；Doyle, 2007, 2008, 2013；Font等人，2018,2019,2021；Grimon, 2023;总,男爵,2022)。因此，总的来说，我们认为关于CPS是帮助还是伤害儿童的证据是不确定的。此外，我们怀疑CPS的参与对短期和长期儿童安全和福祉有异质影响，这种影响因儿童和家庭环境、行为和功能，以及CPS的参与程度（调查、证实、案件开启、服务接收、儿童转移）而有很大差异，儿童和家庭的经历，他们参与的时间，他们接受的服务的类型和质量，以及这些服务满足他们需求的程度。他们的参与，以及当地儿童福利制度本身的特点。然而，值得注意的是，定量研究几乎只关注CPS参与对儿童的影响。据我们所知，只有一项严谨的研究可以估计父母幸福感的合理因果关系。Grimon（2023）发现，CPS的参与增加了孕产妇对精神健康和药物滥用治疗的参与，减少了短期CPS的再转诊，但也发现，户外安置在短期内增加了孕产妇监禁，在长期内增加了CPS的再转诊。她发现很少有证据表明CPS的参与会在这些领域影响父亲，除了减少再推荐。尽管严格的定量证据并没有最终确定CPS是帮助还是伤害儿童和家庭，但越来越多的严格定性证据表明，父母认为CPS通过对抗性、污名化和创伤性的互动，以及参与种族主义、歧视和偏见的做法，对他们和他们的孩子、家庭和社区造成了
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{"title":"Towards a shared understanding of the causes, consequences, and policy implications of racial disparities in child welfare involvement","authors":"","doi":"10.1002/pam.22675","DOIUrl":"10.1002/pam.22675","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48105,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","volume":"44 2","pages":"681"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2025-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143528340","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"管理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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