All around the world, school-entry cohorts are organized on an annual calendar so that the age of students in the same cohort differs by up to one year. It is a well-established finding that this age gap entails a consequential (dis)advantage for academic performance referred to as the relative age effect (RAE). This study contributes to a recent strand of research that has turned to investigate the RAE on non-academic outcomes such as personality traits. An experimental setup is used to estimate the causal effect of monthly age on cognitive effort in a sample of 798 fifth-grade students enrolled in the Spanish educational system, characterized by strict enrolment rules. Participants performed three different real-effort tasks under three different incentive conditions: no rewards; material rewards; and material and status rewards. We observe that older students outwork their youngest peers by two-fifths of a standard deviation, but only when material rewards for performance are in place. Despite the previously reported higher taste for competition among the older students within a school-entry cohort, we do not find that the RAE on cognitive effort increases after inducing competition for peer recognition. Finally, the study also provides suggestive evidence of a larger RAE among boys and students from lower social strata. Implications for sociological research on educational inequality are discussed. To conclude, we outline policy recommendations such as implementing evaluation tools that nudge teachers toward being mindful of relative age differences.
世界各地的入学班级都是按年历组织的，因此同一班级的学生年龄最多相差一岁。众所周知，这种年龄差距会对学习成绩产生（不利）影响，即相对年龄效应（RAE）。本研究是对近期一系列研究的贡献，这些研究转而调查 RAE 对人格特质等非学术结果的影响。本研究以西班牙教育系统中 798 名五年级学生为样本，采用实验设置来估计月龄对认知努力的因果效应。参与者在三种不同的激励条件下完成了三种不同的实际努力任务：无奖励；物质奖励；物质和地位奖励。我们观察到，高年级学生的学习成绩比低年级学生高出五分之二个标准差，但只有在有物质奖励的情况下才会出现这种情况。尽管之前有报道称，在入学队列中，高年级学生更喜欢竞争，但我们并没有发现，在诱导竞争以获得同伴认可后，认知努力的 RAE 会增加。最后，本研究还提供了暗示性证据，表明男生和来自社会底层的学生的 RAE 更大。我们还讨论了教育不平等社会学研究的意义。最后，我们概述了一些政策建议，如实施评价工具，促使教师注意相对年龄差异。
{"title":"Month of Birth and Cognitive Effort: A Laboratory Study of the Relative Age Effect among Fifth Graders","authors":"Jonas Radl, Manuel T Valdés","doi":"10.1093/sf/soae023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soae023","url":null,"abstract":"All around the world, school-entry cohorts are organized on an annual calendar so that the age of students in the same cohort differs by up to one year. It is a well-established finding that this age gap entails a consequential (dis)advantage for academic performance referred to as the relative age effect (RAE). This study contributes to a recent strand of research that has turned to investigate the RAE on non-academic outcomes such as personality traits. An experimental setup is used to estimate the causal effect of monthly age on cognitive effort in a sample of 798 fifth-grade students enrolled in the Spanish educational system, characterized by strict enrolment rules. Participants performed three different real-effort tasks under three different incentive conditions: no rewards; material rewards; and material and status rewards. We observe that older students outwork their youngest peers by two-fifths of a standard deviation, but only when material rewards for performance are in place. Despite the previously reported higher taste for competition among the older students within a school-entry cohort, we do not find that the RAE on cognitive effort increases after inducing competition for peer recognition. Finally, the study also provides suggestive evidence of a larger RAE among boys and students from lower social strata. Implications for sociological research on educational inequality are discussed. To conclude, we outline policy recommendations such as implementing evaluation tools that nudge teachers toward being mindful of relative age differences.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"16 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139945353","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Valerio Baćak, Sarah Esther Lageson, Kathleen Powell
Fairness in the criminal legal system is unattainable without effective legal representation of indigent defendants, yet we know little about the experience of attorneys who do this critical work. Using semi-structured interviews, our study investigated occupational stress in a sample of 78 attorneys representing indigent clients across the United States. We show how the chronic stressors experienced at work culminate in what we define as the stress of injustice: the social and psychological demands of working in a punitive system with laws and practices that target and punish those who are the most disadvantaged. Respondents positioned their professional stress around structural, not individual, aspects of the American criminal legal system, specifically punitive excess, underfunding of indigent defense, and the criminalization of mental illness and substance use. Working within these interrelated structural constraints makes public defenders highly vulnerable to stress and attrition.
{"title":"The Stress of Injustice: Public Defenders and the Frontline of American Inequality","authors":"Valerio Baćak, Sarah Esther Lageson, Kathleen Powell","doi":"10.1093/sf/soae027","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soae027","url":null,"abstract":"Fairness in the criminal legal system is unattainable without effective legal representation of indigent defendants, yet we know little about the experience of attorneys who do this critical work. Using semi-structured interviews, our study investigated occupational stress in a sample of 78 attorneys representing indigent clients across the United States. We show how the chronic stressors experienced at work culminate in what we define as the stress of injustice: the social and psychological demands of working in a punitive system with laws and practices that target and punish those who are the most disadvantaged. Respondents positioned their professional stress around structural, not individual, aspects of the American criminal legal system, specifically punitive excess, underfunding of indigent defense, and the criminalization of mental illness and substance use. Working within these interrelated structural constraints makes public defenders highly vulnerable to stress and attrition.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"169 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139945393","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mary Ellen Stitt, Katherine Sobering, Javier Auyero
Police collusion with drug market organizations is widespread around the world, but the nature of this collaboration remains poorly understood. This article draws on a unique data source to dissect the inner workings of police collusion: transcripts of wiretapped conversations, embedded in thousands of pages of court cases in which state agents have been prosecuted for collaborating with drug market groups. We catalogue and analyze the wide range of social interactions that constitute police collaboration with drug market groups and show that those interactions are often embedded in trust networks constituted by residential, professional, friendship, and kinship ties. Our findings signal the importance of reciprocal social ties surrounding police corruption and cast light on what we refer to as the clandestine hands of the state.
{"title":"The Clandestine Hands of the State: Dissecting Police Collusion in the Drug Trade","authors":"Mary Ellen Stitt, Katherine Sobering, Javier Auyero","doi":"10.1093/sf/soae024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soae024","url":null,"abstract":"Police collusion with drug market organizations is widespread around the world, but the nature of this collaboration remains poorly understood. This article draws on a unique data source to dissect the inner workings of police collusion: transcripts of wiretapped conversations, embedded in thousands of pages of court cases in which state agents have been prosecuted for collaborating with drug market groups. We catalogue and analyze the wide range of social interactions that constitute police collaboration with drug market groups and show that those interactions are often embedded in trust networks constituted by residential, professional, friendship, and kinship ties. Our findings signal the importance of reciprocal social ties surrounding police corruption and cast light on what we refer to as the clandestine hands of the state.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"42 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139945360","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Liang Cai, Christopher R Browning, Kathleen A Cagney
A longstanding urban sociological literature emphasizes the geographic isolation of city dwellers in residence and everyday routines, expecting exposures to neighborhood racial and socio-economic structure driven principally by city-wide segregation and the role of proximity and homophily in mobility. The compelled mobility approach emphasizes the uneven distribution of organizational and institutional resources across urban space, expecting residents of poor Black-segregated neighborhoods to exhibit non-trivial levels of everyday exposure to White, non-poor areas for resource seeking. We use two sets of location data in the hypersegregated Chicago metro to examine these two approaches: Global Positioning System (GPS) location tracking on a sample of older adults from the Chicago Health and Activity Space in Real-Time (CHART) study and travel diaries on a sample of younger adults by the Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (CMAP). We introduce a novel and flexible individual-level method for assessing activity space exposures that accounts for the spatially proximate environment around home. Analyses reveal that activity space contexts mimic the racial/ethnic and socio-economic landscape of respondents’ broad residential environment. However, after residential-based adjustment, Black younger (CMAP) adults from poor Black neighborhoods are disproportionately exposed to Whiter, less Black but less non-poor neighborhoods. Older (CHART) adult activity spaces align more closely with their residential areas; however, activity spaces of poor-Black-neighborhood-residing CHART Blacks are systematically poorer and, less consistently, more Black and less White after local area adjustment. Implications for understanding contextual exposures on well-being and the potential for age or cohort differences in isolation are discussed.
{"title":"Exposure of Neighborhood Racial and Socio-Economic Composition in Activity Space: A New Approach Adjusting for Residential Conditions","authors":"Liang Cai, Christopher R Browning, Kathleen A Cagney","doi":"10.1093/sf/soae021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soae021","url":null,"abstract":"A longstanding urban sociological literature emphasizes the geographic isolation of city dwellers in residence and everyday routines, expecting exposures to neighborhood racial and socio-economic structure driven principally by city-wide segregation and the role of proximity and homophily in mobility. The compelled mobility approach emphasizes the uneven distribution of organizational and institutional resources across urban space, expecting residents of poor Black-segregated neighborhoods to exhibit non-trivial levels of everyday exposure to White, non-poor areas for resource seeking. We use two sets of location data in the hypersegregated Chicago metro to examine these two approaches: Global Positioning System (GPS) location tracking on a sample of older adults from the Chicago Health and Activity Space in Real-Time (CHART) study and travel diaries on a sample of younger adults by the Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (CMAP). We introduce a novel and flexible individual-level method for assessing activity space exposures that accounts for the spatially proximate environment around home. Analyses reveal that activity space contexts mimic the racial/ethnic and socio-economic landscape of respondents’ broad residential environment. However, after residential-based adjustment, Black younger (CMAP) adults from poor Black neighborhoods are disproportionately exposed to Whiter, less Black but less non-poor neighborhoods. Older (CHART) adult activity spaces align more closely with their residential areas; however, activity spaces of poor-Black-neighborhood-residing CHART Blacks are systematically poorer and, less consistently, more Black and less White after local area adjustment. Implications for understanding contextual exposures on well-being and the potential for age or cohort differences in isolation are discussed.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"22 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139945379","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Birth weight is a robust predictor of valued life course outcomes, emphasizing the importance of prenatal development. But does birth weight act as a proxy for environmental conditions in utero, or do biological processes surrounding birth weight themselves play a role in healthy development? To answer this question, we leverage variation in birth weight that is, within families, orthogonal to prenatal environmental conditions: one’s genes. We construct polygenic scores in two longitudinal studies (Born in Bradford, N = 2008; Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, N = 8488) to empirically explore the molecular genetic correlates of birth weight. A 1 standard deviation increase in the polygenic score is associated with an ~100-grams increase in birth weight and a 1.4 pp (22 percent) decrease in low birth weight probability. Sibling comparisons illustrate that this association largely represents a causal effect. The polygenic score–birth weight association is increased for children who spend longer in the womb and whose mothers have higher body mass index, though we find no differences across maternal socioeconomic status. Finally, the polygenic score affects social and cognitive outcomes, suggesting that birth weight is itself related to healthy prenatal development.
{"title":"Exploring the Fetal Origins Hypothesis Using Genetic Data","authors":"Sam Trejo","doi":"10.1093/sf/soae018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soae018","url":null,"abstract":"Birth weight is a robust predictor of valued life course outcomes, emphasizing the importance of prenatal development. But does birth weight act as a proxy for environmental conditions in utero, or do biological processes surrounding birth weight themselves play a role in healthy development? To answer this question, we leverage variation in birth weight that is, within families, orthogonal to prenatal environmental conditions: one’s genes. We construct polygenic scores in two longitudinal studies (Born in Bradford, N = 2008; Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, N = 8488) to empirically explore the molecular genetic correlates of birth weight. A 1 standard deviation increase in the polygenic score is associated with an ~100-grams increase in birth weight and a 1.4 pp (22 percent) decrease in low birth weight probability. Sibling comparisons illustrate that this association largely represents a causal effect. The polygenic score–birth weight association is increased for children who spend longer in the womb and whose mothers have higher body mass index, though we find no differences across maternal socioeconomic status. Finally, the polygenic score affects social and cognitive outcomes, suggesting that birth weight is itself related to healthy prenatal development.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-02-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139750368","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Political economists and labour sociologists alike have studied how the skill specificity of workers can be explained, as it significantly affects workers’ performance. However, the emergence of the gig economy may substantially change skill hiring and specificity in online labour markets because gig workers do not need formal educational credentials to offer their services. Instead, skills are “unbundled” from occupations, and platforms provide alternative ways to signal competencies, for example, via their rating and review systems. To shed light on the applicability of existing theories to explain the skill profiles of gig workers, we examine what predicts the skills hired in the online gig economy. Based on multilevel ordinal logistic regression analyses of 2336 gig worker profiles, we show that—as in traditional labour markets—gig workers with a vocational degree and longer online work experience are hired for more specific skills. However, national labour market institutions and educational systems affect the gig workers’ skill specificity in the opposite direction than in traditional labour markets. Our findings thus suggest that online gig platforms allow workers to overcome restrictions imposed by national institutions as they are hired for those skills in the online gig economy that are institutionally less facilitated in their home labour markets.
{"title":"Skill Specificity on High-Skill Online Gig Platforms: Same as in Traditional Labour Markets?","authors":"Jaap van Slageren, Andrea M Herrmann","doi":"10.1093/sf/soad153","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad153","url":null,"abstract":"Political economists and labour sociologists alike have studied how the skill specificity of workers can be explained, as it significantly affects workers’ performance. However, the emergence of the gig economy may substantially change skill hiring and specificity in online labour markets because gig workers do not need formal educational credentials to offer their services. Instead, skills are “unbundled” from occupations, and platforms provide alternative ways to signal competencies, for example, via their rating and review systems. To shed light on the applicability of existing theories to explain the skill profiles of gig workers, we examine what predicts the skills hired in the online gig economy. Based on multilevel ordinal logistic regression analyses of 2336 gig worker profiles, we show that—as in traditional labour markets—gig workers with a vocational degree and longer online work experience are hired for more specific skills. However, national labour market institutions and educational systems affect the gig workers’ skill specificity in the opposite direction than in traditional labour markets. Our findings thus suggest that online gig platforms allow workers to overcome restrictions imposed by national institutions as they are hired for those skills in the online gig economy that are institutionally less facilitated in their home labour markets.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"65 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-01-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139474312","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The United States manufacturing industry has long been regarded as the economic engine that built and sustained the middle class. In recent decades, this pillar of economic opportunity has eroded substantially. Though much has been written about the decline of manufacturing sectors in United States communities, the potential consequences for economic mobility, and stratification processes more generally, remain largely unexplored. In this study, I develop a conceptual framework linking the study of labor market change to economic stratification. I examine how structural changes to United States labor markets have altered opportunities for economic advancement in the United States. I focus the analysis on birth cohorts in the 1980s, whose labor market entry spans the large-scale erosion of the manufacturing industry in the 2000s. I find strong evidence that declines in manufacturing employment have contributed to growing geographic disparities in upward intergenerational income mobility. Children raised in counties that experienced large contractions in manufacturing industries throughout adolescence experienced large economic penalties in adulthood via reduced levels of upward mobility. The results demonstrate how long-term macroeconomic changes can disrupt and redistribute opportunities within societies.
{"title":"Cohort-Specific Experiences of Industrial Decline and Intergenerational Income Mobility","authors":"Nathan Seltzer","doi":"10.1093/sf/soad145","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad145","url":null,"abstract":"The United States manufacturing industry has long been regarded as the economic engine that built and sustained the middle class. In recent decades, this pillar of economic opportunity has eroded substantially. Though much has been written about the decline of manufacturing sectors in United States communities, the potential consequences for economic mobility, and stratification processes more generally, remain largely unexplored. In this study, I develop a conceptual framework linking the study of labor market change to economic stratification. I examine how structural changes to United States labor markets have altered opportunities for economic advancement in the United States. I focus the analysis on birth cohorts in the 1980s, whose labor market entry spans the large-scale erosion of the manufacturing industry in the 2000s. I find strong evidence that declines in manufacturing employment have contributed to growing geographic disparities in upward intergenerational income mobility. Children raised in counties that experienced large contractions in manufacturing industries throughout adolescence experienced large economic penalties in adulthood via reduced levels of upward mobility. The results demonstrate how long-term macroeconomic changes can disrupt and redistribute opportunities within societies.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"124 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139431773","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Recent research suggests that political polarization has spilled over into otherwise mundane areas of social life. And yet, the size, shape, and depth of that spillage into popular culture are generally unknown. Relying on a sample of 135 widely known movies, TV shows, musicians, sports, and leisure activities, we investigate these issues. We find the “oil spill” of polarization into popular culture is large but loosely organized into multiple fairly shallow pools. Cultural polarization is also asymmetric. Liberals like a wide variety of popular culture, do not dislike conservative popular culture, and their tastes are more rooted in their sociodemographics. Conservatives, on the other hand, like a much narrower range of popular culture, dislike the culture created and liked by Black and urban liberals, and their tastes seem to be more directly rooted in their political ideology. Potential implications of an asymmetric culture war, and ideas for future research, are discussed.
{"title":"The Polarization of Popular Culture: Tracing the Size, Shape, and Depth of the “Oil Spill”","authors":"Craig M Rawlings, Clayton Childress","doi":"10.1093/sf/soad150","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad150","url":null,"abstract":"Recent research suggests that political polarization has spilled over into otherwise mundane areas of social life. And yet, the size, shape, and depth of that spillage into popular culture are generally unknown. Relying on a sample of 135 widely known movies, TV shows, musicians, sports, and leisure activities, we investigate these issues. We find the “oil spill” of polarization into popular culture is large but loosely organized into multiple fairly shallow pools. Cultural polarization is also asymmetric. Liberals like a wide variety of popular culture, do not dislike conservative popular culture, and their tastes are more rooted in their sociodemographics. Conservatives, on the other hand, like a much narrower range of popular culture, dislike the culture created and liked by Black and urban liberals, and their tastes seem to be more directly rooted in their political ideology. Potential implications of an asymmetric culture war, and ideas for future research, are discussed.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"18 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-12-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139061468","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Isabel Pike, Rachael S Pierotti, Mame Soukeye Mbaye
Drawing on interviews and focus groups from Conakry, the capital city of the Republic of Guinea in West Africa, this article examines how people talk about women working in male-dominated skilled trades alongside women’s accounts of their work experiences in those sectors. We find that the idea of women doing gender atypical work, whom we call “crossovers,” evokes widespread admiration. They are unanimously described as brave and virtuous, contrasted with women who rely on money from relationships with men. However, this celebration falters in the workplace, where crossovers often experience paternalism and harassment. Building on theories of both gender beliefs and femininities, we attribute this discrepancy to the differential threats to the gender order that are posed by accommodating crossovers at work versus speaking positively about them. Working together requires men to confront actual women’s unexpected capabilities, while rhetorically celebrating crossovers may in fact reify stereotypes about most women and fail to fundamentally undermine men’s authority. Crossovers can serve as sources of inspiration for an alternative gender order, but we find that professed admiration for “exceptional” groups of women has both limitations and risks. We conclude by suggesting that the subversive potential of admiration for gender atypical behavior must be empirically examined, rather than assumed, with attention to why such women are seen as admirable as well as how this admiration is borne out in social interactions.
{"title":"Assessing Admiration for Women Who Do “Men’s Work”","authors":"Isabel Pike, Rachael S Pierotti, Mame Soukeye Mbaye","doi":"10.1093/sf/soad148","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad148","url":null,"abstract":"Drawing on interviews and focus groups from Conakry, the capital city of the Republic of Guinea in West Africa, this article examines how people talk about women working in male-dominated skilled trades alongside women’s accounts of their work experiences in those sectors. We find that the idea of women doing gender atypical work, whom we call “crossovers,” evokes widespread admiration. They are unanimously described as brave and virtuous, contrasted with women who rely on money from relationships with men. However, this celebration falters in the workplace, where crossovers often experience paternalism and harassment. Building on theories of both gender beliefs and femininities, we attribute this discrepancy to the differential threats to the gender order that are posed by accommodating crossovers at work versus speaking positively about them. Working together requires men to confront actual women’s unexpected capabilities, while rhetorically celebrating crossovers may in fact reify stereotypes about most women and fail to fundamentally undermine men’s authority. Crossovers can serve as sources of inspiration for an alternative gender order, but we find that professed admiration for “exceptional” groups of women has both limitations and risks. We conclude by suggesting that the subversive potential of admiration for gender atypical behavior must be empirically examined, rather than assumed, with attention to why such women are seen as admirable as well as how this admiration is borne out in social interactions.","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"4 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-12-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138559487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper explores how social capital and property regulations shape cultural producers’ ability to own copyrights for the products they create. Because individual producers lack the resources required to develop and distribute their creations, they partner with large firms who demand the copyrights for products they invest in. I argue two types of social capital—status and partner substitutability—enable producers to own their creations by increasing their bargaining power over the firms they partner with. Moreover, I propose that different types of property regulations condition whether status or partner substitutability have a stronger role in producers’ ownership outcomes. Analyzing all shows made for American television from 1956 to 1996, I show that increases in showrunners’ status and number of broadcasters they collaborated with increased the probability they owned shows they produced. However, the effects of these social capitals were contingent on the property regulations showrunners operated under. These findings advance our understanding of the allocation of copyrights, the power dynamics between creators and firms, and the effects of social capital in cultural industries. They didn’t have to pay me because I signed the contract. But is that right? I found out that these people were streaming my work, and they never had to ask me…They stole that from me. They just took it! (Dave Chappelle, The Unforgiven, 2021).
{"title":"Social Capital and Cultural Producers’ Copyright Ownership of Their Creations: Evidence from the Television Industry 1956–1996","authors":"Erez Aharon Marantz","doi":"10.1093/sf/soad147","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad147","url":null,"abstract":"This paper explores how social capital and property regulations shape cultural producers’ ability to own copyrights for the products they create. Because individual producers lack the resources required to develop and distribute their creations, they partner with large firms who demand the copyrights for products they invest in. I argue two types of social capital—status and partner substitutability—enable producers to own their creations by increasing their bargaining power over the firms they partner with. Moreover, I propose that different types of property regulations condition whether status or partner substitutability have a stronger role in producers’ ownership outcomes. Analyzing all shows made for American television from 1956 to 1996, I show that increases in showrunners’ status and number of broadcasters they collaborated with increased the probability they owned shows they produced. However, the effects of these social capitals were contingent on the property regulations showrunners operated under. These findings advance our understanding of the allocation of copyrights, the power dynamics between creators and firms, and the effects of social capital in cultural industries. They didn’t have to pay me because I signed the contract. But is that right? I found out that these people were streaming my work, and they never had to ask me…They stole that from me. They just took it! (Dave Chappelle, The Unforgiven, 2021).","PeriodicalId":48400,"journal":{"name":"Social Forces","volume":"61 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-11-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138449769","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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