Learning permits even relatively uninteresting stimuli to capture attention if they are established as predictors of important outcomes. Associative theories explain this "learned predictiveness" effect by positing that attention is a function of the relative strength of the association between stimuli and outcomes. In three experiments we show that this explanation is incomplete: learned overt visual-attention is not a function of the relative strength of the association between stimuli and an outcome. In three experiments, human participants were exposed to triplets of stimuli that comprised (a) a target (that defined correct responding), (b) a stimulus that was perfectly correlated with the presentation of the target, and (c) a stimulus that was uncorrelated with the presentation of the target. Participants' knowledge of the associative relationship between the correlated or uncorrelated stimuli and the target was always good. However, eye-tracking revealed that an attentional bias toward the correlated stimulus only developed when it and target-relevant responding preceded the target stimulus. We propose a framework in which attentional changes are modulated during learning as a function the relative strength of the association between stimuli and the task-relevant response, rather than an association between stimuli and the task-relevant outcome. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
学习允许即使是相对无趣的刺激也能吸引注意力，如果它们被确定为重要结果的预测因素。联想理论通过假设注意力是刺激和结果之间的相对关联强度的函数来解释这种“习得性预测”效应。在三个实验中，我们证明了这种解释是不完整的:习得的显性视觉注意并不是刺激物和结果之间的相对关联强度的函数。在三个实验中，人类参与者暴露于三组刺激，包括(a)目标(定义正确反应)，(b)与目标呈现完全相关的刺激，以及(c)与目标呈现不相关的刺激。被试对相关或不相关刺激与目标之间的关联关系的认知总是良好的。然而，眼球追踪显示，只有当相关刺激和目标相关反应先于目标刺激时，才会出现对相关刺激的注意偏倚。我们提出了一个框架，在这个框架中，学习过程中的注意力变化是作为刺激和任务相关反应之间的相对关联强度的函数来调节的，而不是刺激和任务相关结果之间的关联。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA，版权所有)。
{"title":"The role of prediction in learned predictiveness.","authors":"Carla J Eatherington, Mark Haselgrove","doi":"10.1037/xan0000330","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000330","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Learning permits even relatively uninteresting stimuli to capture attention if they are established as predictors of important outcomes. Associative theories explain this \"learned predictiveness\" effect by positing that attention is a function of the relative strength of the association between stimuli and outcomes. In three experiments we show that this explanation is incomplete: learned overt visual-attention is not a function of the relative strength of the association between stimuli and an outcome. In three experiments, human participants were exposed to triplets of stimuli that comprised (a) a target (that defined correct responding), (b) a stimulus that was perfectly correlated with the presentation of the target, and (c) a stimulus that was uncorrelated with the presentation of the target. Participants' knowledge of the associative relationship between the correlated or uncorrelated stimuli and the target was always good. However, eye-tracking revealed that an attentional bias toward the correlated stimulus only developed when it and target-relevant responding preceded the target stimulus. We propose a framework in which attentional changes are modulated during learning as a function the relative strength of the association between stimuli and the task-relevant response, rather than an association between stimuli and the task-relevant outcome. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).</p>","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9310352/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"40647361","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-07-01Epub Date: 2022-04-21DOI: 10.1037/xan0000323
Cody W Polack, Ralph R Miller
Taking a test of previously studied material has been shown to improve long-term subsequent test performance in a large variety of well controlled experiments with both human and nonhuman subjects. This phenomenon is called the testing effect. The promise that this benefit has for the field of education has biased research efforts to focus on applied instances of the testing effect relative to efforts to provide detailed accounts of the effect. Moreover, the phenomenon and its theoretical implications have gone largely unacknowledged in the basic associative learning literature, which historically and currently focuses primarily on the role of information processing at the time of acquisition while ignoring the role of processing at the time of testing. Learning is still widely considered to be something that happens during initial training, prior to testing, and tests are viewed as merely assessments of learning. However, the additional processing that occurs during testing has been shown to be relevant for future performance. The present review offers an introduction to the historical development, application, and modern issues regarding the role of testing as a learning opportunity (i.e., the testing effect). We conclude that the testing effect is seen to be sufficiently robust across tasks and parameters to serve as a compelling challenge for theories of learning to address. Our hope is that this review will inspire new research, particularly with nonhuman subjects, aimed at identifying the basic underlying mechanisms which are engaged during retrieval processes and will fuel new thinking about the learning-performance distinction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
{"title":"Testing improves performance as well as assesses learning: A review of the testing effect with implications for models of learning.","authors":"Cody W Polack, Ralph R Miller","doi":"10.1037/xan0000323","DOIUrl":"10.1037/xan0000323","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Taking a test of previously studied material has been shown to improve long-term subsequent test performance in a large variety of well controlled experiments with both human and nonhuman subjects. This phenomenon is called the <i>testing effect</i>. The promise that this benefit has for the field of education has biased research efforts to focus on applied instances of the testing effect relative to efforts to provide detailed accounts of the effect. Moreover, the phenomenon and its theoretical implications have gone largely unacknowledged in the basic associative learning literature, which historically and currently focuses primarily on the role of information processing at the time of acquisition while ignoring the role of processing at the time of testing. Learning is still widely considered to be something that happens during initial training, prior to testing, and tests are viewed as merely assessments of learning. However, the additional processing that occurs during testing has been shown to be relevant for future performance. The present review offers an introduction to the historical development, application, and modern issues regarding the role of testing as a learning opportunity (i.e., the testing effect). We conclude that the testing effect is seen to be sufficiently robust across tasks and parameters to serve as a compelling challenge for theories of learning to address. Our hope is that this review will inspire new research, particularly with nonhuman subjects, aimed at identifying the basic underlying mechanisms which are engaged during retrieval processes and will fuel new thinking about the learning-performance distinction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).</p>","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2022-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10229024/pdf/nihms-1899382.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9785698","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Supplemental Material for The Learning Curve, Revisited","authors":"","doi":"10.1037/xan0000331.supp","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000331.supp","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44859052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In this article we investigate how a psychological theory used to model perceptual learning and face recognition can be used to predict that anodal tDCS delivered over the DLPFC at Fp3 site (for 10 mins duration at 1.5 mA intensity) modulates the decision criterion, C, (and not d-prime [d']) in a target detection task. In two between-subjects and double-blind experiments (n = 112) we examined the tDCS effects on C when subjects were engaged in a target detection task, in the first instance involving artificial checkerboard stimuli (Experiment 1a), and subsequently face stimuli (Experiment 1b). The results from both experiments revealed that in the sham/control groups a significantly higher C was used when detecting a target pattern (Experiment 1a) or face (Experiment 1b) presented on a familiar rather than a random background. Importantly, anodal tDCS significantly reduced/reversed this difference between C adopted for familiar and random backgrounds in both Experiment 1a and 1b without affecting d'. These results contribute to advance our understanding of the tDCS-induced effects on stimulus representation and to the literature regarding the modulation of C. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
在本文中，我们研究了用于模拟感知学习和人脸识别的心理学理论如何用于预测在Fp3位点(在1.5 mA强度下持续10分钟)通过DLPFC传递的节点tDCS调节目标检测任务中的决策标准C(而不是d'])。在两个受试者间实验和双盲实验(n = 112)中，我们研究了受试者在进行目标检测任务时tDCS对C的影响，第一个实验涉及人工棋盘刺激(实验1a)，随后是面部刺激(实验1b)。两个实验的结果都表明，在假组/对照组中，当检测在熟悉背景而不是随机背景上呈现的目标图案(实验1a)或人脸(实验1b)时，使用的C值明显更高。重要的是，在实验1a和1b中，在不影响d'的情况下，阳极tDCS显著减少/逆转了在熟悉背景和随机背景下采用的C之间的差异。这些结果有助于我们进一步了解tdcs诱导的刺激表征效应，以及有关c .调制的文献(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA，版权所有)。
{"title":"Using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to influence decision criterion in a target detection paradigm.","authors":"Ciro Civile, R. McLaren, A. Cooke, I. McLaren","doi":"10.1037/xan0000329.supp","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000329.supp","url":null,"abstract":"In this article we investigate how a psychological theory used to model perceptual learning and face recognition can be used to predict that anodal tDCS delivered over the DLPFC at Fp3 site (for 10 mins duration at 1.5 mA intensity) modulates the decision criterion, C, (and not d-prime [d']) in a target detection task. In two between-subjects and double-blind experiments (n = 112) we examined the tDCS effects on C when subjects were engaged in a target detection task, in the first instance involving artificial checkerboard stimuli (Experiment 1a), and subsequently face stimuli (Experiment 1b). The results from both experiments revealed that in the sham/control groups a significantly higher C was used when detecting a target pattern (Experiment 1a) or face (Experiment 1b) presented on a familiar rather than a random background. Importantly, anodal tDCS significantly reduced/reversed this difference between C adopted for familiar and random backgrounds in both Experiment 1a and 1b without affecting d'. These results contribute to advance our understanding of the tDCS-induced effects on stimulus representation and to the literature regarding the modulation of C. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79566651","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
P. Lovibond, Julie Y. L. Chow, Cheryl A. Tobler, Jessica C. Lee
One of the many strengths of the Rescorla and Wagner (1972) model is that it accounts for both excitatory and inhibitory learning using a single error-correction mechanism. However, it makes the counterintuitive prediction that nonreinforced presentations of an inhibitory stimulus will lead to extinction of its inhibitory properties. Zimmer-Hart and Rescorla (1974) provided the first of several animal conditioning studies that contradicted this prediction. However, the human data are more mixed. Accordingly, we set out to test whether extinction of an inhibitor occurs in human causal learning after simultaneous feature negative training with a conventional unidirectional outcome. In 2 experiments with substantial sample sizes, we found no evidence of extinction after presentations of the inhibitory stimulus alone in either a summation test or causal ratings. By contrast, 2 "no-modulation" procedures that contradicted the original training contingencies successfully reversed inhibition. These results did not differ substantially as a function of participants' self-reported causal structures (configural/modulation/prevention). We hypothesize that inhibitory learning may be intrinsically modulatory, analogous to negative occasion-setting, even with simultaneous training. This hypothesis would explain why inhibition is reversed by manipulations that contradict modulation but not by simple extinction, as well as other properties of inhibitory learning such as imperfect transfer to another excitor. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Rescorla和Wagner(1972)模型的众多优势之一是，它使用单一的错误纠正机制来解释兴奋性和抑制性学习。然而，它做出了反直觉的预测，即抑制刺激的非强化呈现将导致其抑制特性的消失。齐默尔-哈特和Rescorla(1974)提供了第一个与这一预测相矛盾的动物条件反射研究。然而，人类的数据则更为复杂。因此，我们开始测试在与传统单向结果同时进行特征负性训练后，是否会在人类因果学习中发生抑制剂的消失。在两个具有大量样本量的实验中，我们在总结测试或因果评级中都没有发现单独呈现抑制刺激后消失的证据。相比之下，与原始训练偶然性相矛盾的2个“无调节”程序成功地逆转了抑制。这些结果在参与者自我报告的因果结构(配置/调节/预防)方面没有实质性差异。我们假设，抑制性学习可能具有内在的调节性，类似于消极的场合设置，即使是在同时训练的情况下。这一假设可以解释为什么抑制会被与调节相矛盾的操作逆转，而不是简单的消失，以及抑制性学习的其他特性，如不完全转移到另一个兴奋器。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA，版权所有)。
{"title":"Reversal of inhibition by no-modulation training but not by extinction in human causal learning.","authors":"P. Lovibond, Julie Y. L. Chow, Cheryl A. Tobler, Jessica C. Lee","doi":"10.1037/xan0000328","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000328","url":null,"abstract":"One of the many strengths of the Rescorla and Wagner (1972) model is that it accounts for both excitatory and inhibitory learning using a single error-correction mechanism. However, it makes the counterintuitive prediction that nonreinforced presentations of an inhibitory stimulus will lead to extinction of its inhibitory properties. Zimmer-Hart and Rescorla (1974) provided the first of several animal conditioning studies that contradicted this prediction. However, the human data are more mixed. Accordingly, we set out to test whether extinction of an inhibitor occurs in human causal learning after simultaneous feature negative training with a conventional unidirectional outcome. In 2 experiments with substantial sample sizes, we found no evidence of extinction after presentations of the inhibitory stimulus alone in either a summation test or causal ratings. By contrast, 2 \"no-modulation\" procedures that contradicted the original training contingencies successfully reversed inhibition. These results did not differ substantially as a function of participants' self-reported causal structures (configural/modulation/prevention). We hypothesize that inhibitory learning may be intrinsically modulatory, analogous to negative occasion-setting, even with simultaneous training. This hypothesis would explain why inhibition is reversed by manipulations that contradict modulation but not by simple extinction, as well as other properties of inhibitory learning such as imperfect transfer to another excitor. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-06-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82793713","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Supplemental Material for Reversal of Inhibition by No-Modulation Training but Not by Extinction in Human Causal Learning","authors":"","doi":"10.1037/xan0000328.supp","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000328.supp","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46694880","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Although noted as a proponent of associative learning theory, Bob Rescorla acknowledged that other mechanisms might be responsible for the within-event learning produced when two stimuli co-occur. To investigate this possibility, he conducted experiments in which rats experienced a compound of a novel flavor and a palatable nutrient, and demonstrated that a preference for the flavor established by this training did not show the pattern of extinction that might be expected of a preference based on a flavor-nutrient association. A review is presented of subsequent work on the extinction of such conditioned flavor preferences in rats. The results are found to depend on the motivational state of the rat in training and on test, on the match between the procedures on training and test, and on the details of the test procedure (the nature of the choice offered to the rat). When conditions are arranged appropriately, the extinction effect (a loss of the conditioned response) expected by standard associative theory can be obtained. What remains a problem for this theory is the observation (made originally by Rescorla himself) is that the effects of extinguishing a conditioned flavor preference are remarkably persistent. The failure to obtain recovery from the effects of the extinction procedure remains as a signal that this form of learning may involve processes other than the association formation used to explain many other forms of learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
作为联想学习理论的支持者，Bob Rescorla承认，当两种刺激同时出现时，其他机制可能会导致事件内学习。为了研究这种可能性，他进行了一些实验，让老鼠体验一种新味道和一种美味的营养物质的混合物，并证明了通过这种训练建立的对味道的偏好并没有显示出基于味道-营养关联的偏好所预期的灭绝模式。回顾了随后在大鼠中对这种条件风味偏好的灭绝的研究。结果发现，这取决于大鼠在训练和测试中的动机状态，取决于训练和测试过程之间的匹配，以及测试过程的细节(提供给大鼠的选择的性质)。当条件安排得当时，可以获得标准联想理论所期望的消光效应(条件反应的丧失)。这一理论仍然存在的一个问题是，观察到(最初由Rescorla自己提出)，即消除条件偏好的影响是非常持久的。未能从消失过程的影响中获得恢复仍然是一个信号，表明这种形式的学习可能涉及其他过程，而不是用于解释许多其他形式的学习的联想形成。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA，版权所有)。
{"title":"Extinction of conditioned flavor preferences.","authors":"G. Hall","doi":"10.1037/xan0000326","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000326","url":null,"abstract":"Although noted as a proponent of associative learning theory, Bob Rescorla acknowledged that other mechanisms might be responsible for the within-event learning produced when two stimuli co-occur. To investigate this possibility, he conducted experiments in which rats experienced a compound of a novel flavor and a palatable nutrient, and demonstrated that a preference for the flavor established by this training did not show the pattern of extinction that might be expected of a preference based on a flavor-nutrient association. A review is presented of subsequent work on the extinction of such conditioned flavor preferences in rats. The results are found to depend on the motivational state of the rat in training and on test, on the match between the procedures on training and test, and on the details of the test procedure (the nature of the choice offered to the rat). When conditions are arranged appropriately, the extinction effect (a loss of the conditioned response) expected by standard associative theory can be obtained. What remains a problem for this theory is the observation (made originally by Rescorla himself) is that the effects of extinguishing a conditioned flavor preference are remarkably persistent. The failure to obtain recovery from the effects of the extinction procedure remains as a signal that this form of learning may involve processes other than the association formation used to explain many other forms of learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-05-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86798122","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Reports an error in "Can we study episodic-like memory in preschoolers from an animal foraging model" by Javier Vila, Eneida Strempler-Rubio and Angélica Alvarado (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, 2021[Jul], Vol 47[3], 357-363). In the original article, a repeated measure analysis of variance was calculated with incorrect numerator and denominator degrees of freedom, which resulted in incorrect F, MSE, and R² values being reported in the Results section. When calculated correctly, the significant differences found in the new analysis of variance were the same as before. The results and conclusions are unchanged. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2021-92066-011). Episodic-like memory (ELM) involves remembering the what, where, and when (WWW) of an event as a whole, and it can be studied behaviorally. In research regarding this type of memory with children, one experiment proposes a new task adapted from animal foraging studies. A task derived from a foraging model was presented its considers the characteristics required for ELM study in children and employs a single trial presented from an egocentric perspective to avoid memory consolidation. One study compared four-year-old children's choices after being trained with one or three trials using a hide-and-seek task. The consequence size and retention interval between training and test were manipulated. Results showed that children chose the optimal outcome after an immediate or delayed test. The children's choices were conditional on the size of the consequences and the time at retrieval according to the Temporal Weighting Rule (Devenport & Devenport, 1994). The results were similar to those of animal studies and were consistent with a foraging memory model. In discussion, the advantages and limitations of the proposed task for the study of ELM in children are described and explained. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
{"title":"\"Can we study episodic-like memory in preschoolers from an animal foraging model\": Correction.","authors":"J. Vila, E. Strempler-Rubio, Angélica Alvarado","doi":"10.1037/xan0000324","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000324","url":null,"abstract":"Reports an error in \"Can we study episodic-like memory in preschoolers from an animal foraging model\" by Javier Vila, Eneida Strempler-Rubio and Angélica Alvarado (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, 2021[Jul], Vol 47[3], 357-363). In the original article, a repeated measure analysis of variance was calculated with incorrect numerator and denominator degrees of freedom, which resulted in incorrect F, MSE, and R² values being reported in the Results section. When calculated correctly, the significant differences found in the new analysis of variance were the same as before. The results and conclusions are unchanged. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2021-92066-011). Episodic-like memory (ELM) involves remembering the what, where, and when (WWW) of an event as a whole, and it can be studied behaviorally. In research regarding this type of memory with children, one experiment proposes a new task adapted from animal foraging studies. A task derived from a foraging model was presented its considers the characteristics required for ELM study in children and employs a single trial presented from an egocentric perspective to avoid memory consolidation. One study compared four-year-old children's choices after being trained with one or three trials using a hide-and-seek task. The consequence size and retention interval between training and test were manipulated. Results showed that children chose the optimal outcome after an immediate or delayed test. The children's choices were conditional on the size of the consequences and the time at retrieval according to the Temporal Weighting Rule (Devenport & Devenport, 1994). The results were similar to those of animal studies and were consistent with a foraging memory model. In discussion, the advantages and limitations of the proposed task for the study of ELM in children are described and explained. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-05-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80434740","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The associative learning theory of Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner has been duly celebrated for its 50-year reign as the predominant model in learning science. One special recognition is warranted: its close correspondence with David Hume's associative theory of causality judgment. Hume's rules by which causes come to suggest effects are not only embraced by the Rescorla-Wagner model, but their mechanistic account makes precise quantitative predictions that can be assessed by empirical evidence rather than by speculation and argumentation. Framed in this way, the Rescorla-Wagner model truly represents the scientific culmination of Hume's philosophical theory of causation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
罗伯特·瑞斯科拉和艾伦·瓦格纳的联想学习理论作为学习科学的主导模式统治了50年，受到了应有的赞誉。一个特别的承认是有必要的:它与大卫休谟的因果关系判断的联想理论密切对应。休谟的因果法则不仅被Rescorla-Wagner模型所接受，而且他们的机械解释做出了精确的定量预测，可以通过经验证据来评估，而不是通过猜测和论证。在这种框架下，雷斯科勒-瓦格纳模型真正代表了休谟因果关系哲学理论的科学巅峰。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA，版权所有)。
{"title":"The Rescorla-Wagner Model: The culmination of Hume's theory of causation.","authors":"E. Wasserman, Leyre Castro","doi":"10.1037/xan0000325","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000325","url":null,"abstract":"The associative learning theory of Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner has been duly celebrated for its 50-year reign as the predominant model in learning science. One special recognition is warranted: its close correspondence with David Hume's associative theory of causality judgment. Hume's rules by which causes come to suggest effects are not only embraced by the Rescorla-Wagner model, but their mechanistic account makes precise quantitative predictions that can be assessed by empirical evidence rather than by speculation and argumentation. Framed in this way, the Rescorla-Wagner model truly represents the scientific culmination of Hume's philosophical theory of causation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-05-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81168035","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Conditioned responding that has been extinguished can spontaneously return when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is first presented after an extended delay. This spontaneous recovery of responding suggests that the memory of nonreinforced experience with the CS is impaired over the delay period. Rescorla (2007) provided evidence that this effect of time on nonreinforcement is not specific to extinction. He showed that a delay period can also reverse the reduction of responding established by a partial reinforcement schedule. Here we describe a series of experiments that attempted to confirm Rescorla's finding and additionally assessed the impact of the delay on another well-known consequence of partial reinforcement-the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE). Like Rescorla, we used a Pavlovian conditioning procedure with rats, measuring magazine activity during a CS that signaled food. Unlike Rescorla, we did not find that responding acquired under partial reinforcement spontaneously increased after a delay; however, we did observe a significant reduction in the PREE after that delay. We conclude that the passage of time has a selective effect on the retrieval of memories of nonreinforcement. Therefore, time produces spontaneous recovery by impairing retrieval of extinction memories but also weakens the PREE by impairing retrieval of memories of nonreinforcement that were acquired during partial reinforcement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
当条件刺激经过一段时间的延迟后再次出现时，被熄灭的条件反应可以自发地恢复。这种自发的反应恢复表明，非强化经验的记忆在延迟期间受到损害。Rescorla(2007)提供的证据表明，时间对非强化的影响并不局限于灭绝。他表明，延迟期也可以逆转部分强化计划造成的反应减少。在这里，我们描述了一系列的实验，试图证实Rescorla的发现，并额外评估延迟对部分强化的另一个众所周知的后果-部分强化消退效应(PREE)的影响。与Rescorla一样，我们对大鼠使用了巴甫洛夫条件反射程序，测量了在发出食物信号的CS期间杂志的活动。与Rescorla不同，我们没有发现在部分强化下获得的反应在延迟后自发增加;然而，我们确实观察到延迟后PREE显著降低。我们得出结论，时间的流逝对非强化记忆的提取有选择性影响。因此，时间通过削弱消退记忆的检索产生自发恢复，但也通过削弱部分强化过程中获得的非强化记忆的检索而削弱PREE。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA，版权所有)。
{"title":"Delaying extinction weakens the partial reinforcement extinction effect.","authors":"S. E. Norton, Justin A. Harris","doi":"10.1037/xan0000319","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000319","url":null,"abstract":"Conditioned responding that has been extinguished can spontaneously return when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is first presented after an extended delay. This spontaneous recovery of responding suggests that the memory of nonreinforced experience with the CS is impaired over the delay period. Rescorla (2007) provided evidence that this effect of time on nonreinforcement is not specific to extinction. He showed that a delay period can also reverse the reduction of responding established by a partial reinforcement schedule. Here we describe a series of experiments that attempted to confirm Rescorla's finding and additionally assessed the impact of the delay on another well-known consequence of partial reinforcement-the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE). Like Rescorla, we used a Pavlovian conditioning procedure with rats, measuring magazine activity during a CS that signaled food. Unlike Rescorla, we did not find that responding acquired under partial reinforcement spontaneously increased after a delay; however, we did observe a significant reduction in the PREE after that delay. We conclude that the passage of time has a selective effect on the retrieval of memories of nonreinforcement. Therefore, time produces spontaneous recovery by impairing retrieval of extinction memories but also weakens the PREE by impairing retrieval of memories of nonreinforcement that were acquired during partial reinforcement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":54259,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-05-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74567333","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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