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Chemical and Thermal Exposure Risks in a Multi Compartment Training Structure 多隔间培训结构中的化学和热暴露风险
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-22 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01578-w
Gavin P. Horn, Keith Stakes, Danielle L. Neumann, Joseph M. Willi, Ryan Chaffer, Craig Weinschenk, Kenneth W. Fent

Providing NFPA 1403 compliant live-fire training can present thermal and chemical exposure risk to instructors and students. To reduce risk, training academies, fire departments, instructors, and standards setting technical committees need more information on how different training fuels used in common training structures can impact the environment in which firefighter training occurs. This study utilized a traditional concrete training structure with multiple compartments to characterize training environments with three different fuel package materials [i.e., low density wood fiberboard, oriented strand board (OSB), and wood pallets]. Exposure risks for a fire instructor located on either the first or second floor were characterized using measurements of heat flux, air temperature and airborne concentrations of several contaminants including known, probable, or possible carcinogens. It was hypothesized that utilizing a training fuel package with solid wood pallets would result in lower concentrations of these airborne contaminants [aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)] than wood-based sheet goods containing additional resins and/or waxes. Additionally, it was hypothesized that these concentrations would be lower than in the single compartment Fire Behavior Lab presented in a companion manuscript. For all measured compounds other than hydrochloric acid, airborne concentrations were 10 to 100 times lower than in the Fire Behavior Lab. OSB-fueled fires produced the highest median concentrations of total PAHs and VOCs such as benzene, while the pallet fuel package produced the lowest median concentrations of these compounds. These trends generally followed the qualitative visual obscuration created by each fuel. Additional tests were conducted on the OSB-fueled fires with increased ventilation and an alternate means of reducing visibility through smoldering smoke barrels. This OSB experiment with increased ventilation resulted in the highest temperatures in the fire room but the lowest impact on visibility throughout the structure, as well as the lowest overall concentrations of contaminants in this study. In contrast, the smoldering straw-filled smoke barrel created a highly obscured environment (with minimal impact on thermal environment) and some of the highest concentrations of the targeted contaminants of any test. These data may be useful in balancing obscuration for training with potential exposure to thermal stressors and contaminants.

提供符合 NFPA 1403 标准的实弹训练可能会给教官和学员带来热和化学暴露风险。为了降低风险,培训学院、消防部门、教官和标准制定技术委员会需要获得更多信息,以了解常用培训结构中使用的不同培训燃料会如何影响消防员培训环境。本研究利用一个具有多个隔间的传统混凝土训练结构来描述使用三种不同燃料包材料 [即低密度木纤维板、定向刨花板 (OSB) 和木托盘] 的训练环境。通过测量热通量、空气温度和空气中几种污染物(包括已知、可能或可能的致癌物质)的浓度,确定了位于一楼或二楼的消防教员的暴露风险。根据假设,与含有额外树脂和/或蜡的木质板材相比,使用实木托盘的培训燃料包会降低这些空气传播污染物 [醛、多环芳烃 (PAH) 和挥发性有机化合物 (VOC)] 的浓度。此外,我们还假设这些浓度将低于配套手稿中介绍的单隔间火灾行为实验室中的浓度。除盐酸外,所有测得的化合物在空气中的浓度都比在火灾行为实验室中低 10 到 100 倍。以定向刨花板为燃料的火灾产生的多环芳烃总量和苯等挥发性有机化合物的中位浓度最高,而托盘燃料包产生的这些化合物的中位浓度最低。这些趋势通常与每种燃料造成的视觉遮蔽的质量有关。我们还对以定向刨花板为燃料的火灾进行了额外的测试,增加了通风量,并采用了另一种通过烟筒降低能见度的方法。增加通风的定向刨花板实验导致起火房间温度最高,但对整个结构的能见度影响最小,同时也是本研究中污染物总体浓度最低的实验。与此相反,燃烧着稻草的烟筒造成了一个高度遮蔽的环境(对热环境的影响最小),而且在所有测试中,目标污染物的浓度最高。这些数据可能有助于平衡训练的遮蔽性与潜在的热应力和污染物暴露。
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引用次数: 0
A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis of Electrical Fires from 1993 to 2022 1993 年至 2022 年电气火灾的系统回顾和文献计量分析
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-11 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01580-2
Hong Meng, Lei Xiao, Cunwei Zhang, Tianwei Zhang, Dengyou Xia, Wenyang Dong

In recent years, electrical fires, which constitute the majority of fire incidents, have become a significant concern. This paper presents a quantitative evaluation of the research on electrical fires from 1993 to 2022, using literature measurement and visual analysis techniques. A total of 2915 publications were collected from the Web of Science database to review and analyze the research progress on electrical fires. In this investigation, the quantitative distribution of literature by year as well as the distributions of main source journals, countries and regions, institutions, and discipline categories were analyzed. Additionally, research hotspots were identified and the knowledge field was mapped using VOSviewer. The results indicated an exponential growth in the number of publications on electrical fires, with Ceramics International emerging as the most prolific journal, having published 79 papers and accounting for 2.5% of the total research. The most active countries in electrical fire research were found to be China, the United States, South Korea, India, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, with Chinese publications having the most significant impact. The University of Science and Technology of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Tsinghua University are the most productive institutions in the field of electrical fire research; their main research directions include electrical structure, electrical experiment simulation, insulating materials, battery fires, fire extinguishing technology, and detection methods. Further, we observed that the scope of research on electrical fires has expanded from the macro to micro level. Thematic analysis conducted in the last decade has revealed that battery fires and equipment materials have emerged as the primary focus of research in this field. These research findings offer a comprehensive overview of the evolution of research hotspots, which can assist researchers in quickly grasping the research frontiers as well as the overall situation.

近年来,在火灾事故中占绝大多数的电气火灾已成为一个备受关注的问题。本文采用文献计量和视觉分析技术,对 1993 年至 2022 年期间有关电气火灾的研究进行了定量评估。本文从 Web of Science 数据库中收集了共计 2915 篇文献,对电气火灾的研究进展进行了回顾和分析。本次调查分析了按年份分列的文献数量分布情况,以及主要来源期刊、国家和地区、机构和学科类别的分布情况。此外,还确定了研究热点,并使用 VOSviewer 绘制了知识领域图。结果表明,有关电气火灾的论文数量呈指数级增长,其中《国际陶瓷》是最多产的期刊,共发表了 79 篇论文,占研究总数的 2.5%。在电气火灾研究方面最活跃的国家是中国、美国、韩国、印度、德国、法国和英国,其中中国的出版物影响最大。中国科学技术大学、中国科学院和清华大学是电气火灾研究领域最有成果的机构,其主要研究方向包括电气结构、电气实验模拟、绝缘材料、电池火灾、灭火技术和检测方法。此外,我们还注意到,电气火灾的研究范围已从宏观层面扩展到微观层面。过去十年间进行的专题分析表明,电池火灾和设备材料已成为该领域的主要研究重点。这些研究成果全面概述了研究热点的演变,有助于研究人员快速把握研究前沿和整体形势。
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引用次数: 0
Analytical Model for Non-linear (user2{M - },,{varvec{theta}}) Relationships of Dowel-Type Timber Connections Exposed to Fire 暴露于火灾的道钉型木材连接的非线性 $$user2{M - },,{varvec{theta}}$ 关系的分析模型
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-08 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01546-4
Yukito Nakayama, Takayuki Kikuchi, Marina Totsuka, Takeo Hirashima

Recent experimental evidence has shown that wood–steel–wood dowel-type connections exhibit a semi-rigid behaviour even after 90 min of fire exposure. Because a semi-rigid behaviour influences the bending moment distribution among structural members, considering the moment–rotation relationships within frame analyses in which structural members are modelled as beam elements can enable a realistic fire response analysis that is significantly simpler than the three-dimensional finite element method. This study proposes an analytical methodology that accounts for the thermo-mechanical behaviour of timber and dowels, enabling the simulation of the non-linear moment–rotation relationships under fire conditions. The proposed analytical model divides dowels into a series of elements on an elastoplastic foundation and performs a direct stiffness method in a time-incremental procedure using an element stiffness matrix derived from beam-on-elastic-foundation theory. This study also presents the results of load-carrying tests on timber frames with dowel-type connections performed under ambient and fire conditions. The analytical results were consistent with the fire test results. Additionally, the analyses were also performed under three conditions in which the dowels were rigid, linear elastic, and elastoplastic bodies. These three results converged to the same value after 65 min of heating, which suggests that the ultimate states of beams with dowel-type connections exposed to fire can be modelled by assuming that dowels are rigid bodies.

最近的实验证据表明,即使经过 90 分钟的火灾暴露,木-钢-木钉型连接也会表现出半刚性特性。由于半刚性行为会影响结构构件之间的弯矩分布,因此在将结构构件作为梁元素建模的框架分析中考虑弯矩-旋转关系,可以实现逼真的火灾响应分析,而且比三维有限元方法要简单得多。本研究提出了一种分析方法,该方法考虑了木材和榫头的热机械行为,能够模拟火灾条件下的非线性力矩-旋转关系。建议的分析模型将木钉划分为弹性地基上的一系列元素,并使用从弹性地基梁理论中得出的元素刚度矩阵,在时间递增程序中执行直接刚度法。本研究还介绍了在环境和火灾条件下对采用榫卯连接的木框架进行的承载测试结果。分析结果与火灾试验结果一致。此外,还在镙钉为刚性体、线弹性体和弹塑性体的三种条件下进行了分析。这三种结果在加热 65 分钟后趋同于相同的值,这表明假定镙栓是刚性体,就可以模拟带镙栓型连接件的梁在火灾中的最终状态。
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引用次数: 0
Evaluating 900 Potentially Harming Fires in Germany: Is the Prescriptive Building Code Effective? German Fire Departments Assessed Fire Safety Measures in Buildings Through On-Site Inspections 评估德国 900 起潜在火灾:规范性建筑法规是否有效?德国消防部门通过现场检查评估建筑消防安全措施
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-04 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01560-6
Björn Maiworm, Moritz Göldner, Kilian Mannl, Claudius Hammann

Fire statistics mirror the outcome of fire prevention. Most fire statistics in Germany deal with the loss of life, value, and fire department actions (number of interventions, nozzles used, or alarm category like a false alarm). However, these results also represent the safety level the legislator has set through the prescriptive building regulations. The current statistics cannot evaluate the level of fire safety and the fulfillment or necessity of fire safety precautions. Today, expert judgment from firefighters is necessary to fill this gap. Here, we show the first evaluation of fire prevention and hazard protection measures by evaluating 900 potentially harming fires throughout Germany. In contrast to minor fires, these fires have advanced to the extent that they could potentially violate the protection objectives outlined in building regulations. The fire department association developed a questionnaire to evaluate the fire safety level and possibly reduce unnecessary fire safety regulations. One hundred twenty-three fire departments carried out the questionnaire, which are responsible for 25% of the German population. Fire prevention officers of the fire departments went to the scene after the fire was extinguished, and the fire safety concept of the building could be evaluated. We found a high rate of injuries, smoke spread, need for rescue by firefighters, and higher than expected firefighter response times after arrival at the scene. Surprisingly, smoke spread rates correlated with building height and not with building age. It was even possible to assess the risk of multiple casualties. Overall, the questionnaire results give insight into the current level of fire safety in existing buildings. Ways and rates for smoke and fire spread prove the importance of second escape routes and the influence of human misconduct. According to these results, current building code regulations are sufficient to prevent fire spread. On the other hand, smoke spreading is a severe threat to people’s safety. For example, the data shown can be applied in Bayes nets or other risk calculations to optimize individual building designs or even governmental building codes concerning fire safety engineering. Based on our observations, science, and building codes, authorities could in the future establish a performance-based building code instead of the current prescriptive code. This paper presents the first approach in Germany to quantify the expert judgment of fire departments and use it as a source of knowledge for fire prevention.

火灾统计数据反映了火灾预防的结果。德国的大多数火灾统计数据都涉及生命损失、价值和消防部门的行动(干预次数、使用的喷嘴或警报类别,如误报)。然而,这些结果也代表了立法者通过规范性建筑法规设定的安全水平。目前的统计数据无法评估消防安全水平以及消防安全预防措施的执行情况或必要性。如今,有必要通过消防员的专业判断来填补这一空白。在此,我们通过对德国各地 900 起潜在危害性火灾的评估,首次展示了防火和危险防护措施的评估结果。与轻微火灾不同,这些火灾已经发展到有可能违反建筑法规中规定的保护目标的程度。消防部门协会编制了一份调查问卷,以评估消防安全水平,并在可能的情况下减少不必要的消防安全规定。有 123 个消防部门进行了问卷调查,这些部门负责 25% 的德国人口。火灾扑灭后,消防部门的防火官员会前往现场,对建筑物的消防安全理念进行评估。我们发现,火灾现场的受伤率、烟雾扩散率、消防员救援需求以及消防员到达现场后的响应时间均高于预期。令人惊讶的是,烟雾扩散率与建筑高度相关,而与建筑年龄无关。甚至还可以评估多人伤亡的风险。总之,问卷调查的结果让我们对现有建筑的消防安全水平有了更深入的了解。烟雾和火势蔓延的方式和速度证明了第二逃生通道的重要性以及人为不当行为的影响。根据这些结果,现行的建筑法规足以防止火灾蔓延。另一方面,烟雾蔓延严重威胁着人们的安全。例如,所显示的数据可应用于贝叶斯网或其他风险计算,以优化单个建筑设计,甚至是与消防安全工程相关的政府建筑规范。根据我们的观察结果、科学和建筑规范,政府部门将来可以制定基于性能的建筑规范,而不是目前的规范性规范。本文介绍了德国第一种量化消防部门专家判断并将其作为防火知识来源的方法。
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引用次数: 0
A Numerical Investigation of High-Strength Steel H-SA700 of Protected Beam with Cavity Under Elevated Temperature Including Creep Behavior 高温下带空腔保护梁的高强度钢 H-SA700 的蠕变行为数值研究
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-03 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01576-y
Hoang Long Nguyen, Mamoru Kohno

High-strength steel has been extensively used in numerous structures or high-rise buildings because of its high strength, ductility, and weldability. However, high-strength steel structures are vulnerable to fire hazards, so the ability to predict structural behavior is crucial in structural fire safety design. Creep behavior is one of the primary factors influencing the response of steel at high temperatures. This paper presents numerical studies using the fire dynamics simulator (FDS) and finite element method (FEM) coupling models to predict the structural behavior of a protected beam with a cavity for H-SA700 high-strength steel at elevated temperatures, including the creep effect. A comparison between simulation and experiment results demonstrates the validity of the process. In detail, based on a set of tensile tests conducted at six constant temperatures between 23°C and 600°C, the creep model is proposed. Subsequently, because creep is temperature-dependent, the heat transfer model used to predict the temperature distribution of the steel is developed. The effect of the partially damaged protection cover is discussed. Finally, it is found that with the temperature distribution from FDS-FEM integration and the proposed creep models, the collapse time of the beam can be defined. This study provides a practical approach for developing the creep model without creep tests and applying it to complex structures during fires.

高强度钢因其高强度、延展性和可焊接性而被广泛应用于众多结构或高层建筑中。然而,高强度钢结构易受火灾危害,因此预测结构行为的能力对于结构防火设计至关重要。蠕变行为是影响钢材高温响应的主要因素之一。本文介绍了使用火灾动力学模拟器(FDS)和有限元法(FEM)耦合模型进行的数值研究,以预测带空腔的 H-SA700 高强度钢保护梁在高温下的结构行为,包括蠕变效应。模拟和实验结果之间的对比证明了这一过程的有效性。具体而言,根据在 23°C 至 600°C 之间的六个恒定温度下进行的一组拉伸试验,提出了蠕变模型。随后,由于蠕变与温度有关,还建立了用于预测钢材温度分布的传热模型。讨论了部分损坏的保护层的影响。最后,通过 FDS-FEM 集成的温度分布和所提出的蠕变模型,可以确定梁的坍塌时间。本研究提供了一种实用方法,无需进行蠕变试验即可开发蠕变模型,并将其应用于火灾期间的复杂结构。
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引用次数: 0
Using Older Adult Walking Speeds from Controlled Trials as Inputs for Occupants in Simulations 将对照试验得出的老年人步行速度作为模拟中乘员的输入值
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-02 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01574-0
Bronwyn Forrest, John Gales, Karen Van Ooteghem, Elizabeth Weckman

There is a need to revisit movement dataset(s) currently used as egress determinants to assess whether they are truly representative of the current diverse occupant base. This is particularly important with our aging population as these sets contain very limited amounts of recent, age-specific data for older adults. This study provides data on walking speeds of older adults, obtained during standardized tests of walking, and compares those to default walking speeds used in current egress models. From experimental, short-distance walking trials (n = 451), it was seen that sex, increasing age, use of walking aids, those who have previously experienced a stroke (n = 116) and walking under cognitive load all resulted in decreases in walking speed. First iteration Pathfinder simulations showed that more realistic inputs for population walking speed resulted in simulated egress times that were on average 8 s slower compared to use of the current default range of walking speeds. Results suggest that the assumption of a uniform population in egress modelling, and consequently the standard practice of using a default walking speed for older adult occupants, should be reconsidered since, in reality the older adult population is extremely heterogeneous with regards to mobility, as reflected in the variability in walking speeds in this study.

摘要 有必要重新审视目前用作出口决定因素的运动数据集,以评估这些数据集是否真正代表了当前不同的居住者群体。这对我们的老龄化人口尤为重要,因为这些数据集所包含的针对老年人年龄段的最新数据非常有限。本研究提供了老年人在标准化步行测试中获得的步行速度数据,并将其与当前逃生模型中使用的默认步行速度进行了比较。通过短距离步行实验(n = 451)发现,性别、年龄增长、使用步行辅助工具、曾中风(n = 116)以及在认知负荷下步行都会导致步行速度下降。首次迭代 Pathfinder 模拟显示,与使用当前默认步行速度范围相比,输入更符合实际情况的人群步行速度可使模拟撤离时间平均缩短 8 秒。研究结果表明,由于现实中老年人群在行动能力方面存在极大差异,本研究中的步行速度差异也反映了这一点,因此应重新考虑逃生模型中的统一人群假设,以及因此而采用的老年人默认步行速度的标准做法。
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引用次数: 0
A Review of Additives for Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems 水雾灭火系统添加剂综述
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-04-01 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01570-4
Antonin Robinet, Khaled Chetehouna

As the complexity and the cost of infrastructures have risen, the need for a fast, reliable, cost-effective and clean fire extinguishing system has become important. Water mist is a clean and effective technology to deal with most types of fires. Over the years, chemicals have been added to the water to improve the performance of the mist and deal with new types of fires. This review presents an exhaustive state of the art on additives for water mist technology over the last fifty years. Eleven publishers were reviewed to form the corpus of almost one hundred articles. A systematic review of the articles highlighted that alkali metal compounds have been the main focus of research. Metal-based compounds have also proved to be effective. Surfactants remain an additive of choice in the formulation of fire-fighting foams and as additives for water mist but hydrocarbon surfactants should be preferred to fluor-based ones for environmental reasons. Solvents have proved to be a new, clean and potent class of water mist additives worthy of further investigation. Overall, the toxicology and environmental impacts of most additives have not been addressed or are often overlooked as an important criterion for a water mist additive.

随着基础设施的复杂性和成本的增加,对快速、可靠、经济、清洁的灭火系统的需求变得越来越重要。水雾是一种清洁有效的技术,可用于处理大多数类型的火灾。多年来,为了提高水雾的性能和应对新型火灾,人们在水中添加了化学物质。本综述详尽介绍了过去五十年中有关水雾技术添加剂的最新进展。我们对 11 家出版社的近百篇文章进行了审查。对这些文章的系统性审查突出表明,碱金属化合物一直是研究的重点。金属基化合物也被证明是有效的。表面活性剂仍然是配制泡沫灭火剂和作为水雾添加剂的首选添加剂,但出于环保原因,应优先选择碳氢化合物表面活性剂,而不是氟基表面活性剂。事实证明,溶剂是一类新的、清洁且有效的水雾添加剂,值得进一步研究。总体而言,大多数添加剂的毒理学和环境影响尚未得到解决,或往往被忽视,而这是水雾添加剂的一个重要标准。
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引用次数: 0
Optimization of Failure Modes of a Ductile Connection Under Fire Conditions 火灾条件下球墨铸铁连接件失效模式的优化
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-03-31 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01571-3
Yu Liu, Shan-Shan Huang, Ian Burgess, Bin Peng

Connections are the most vulnerable parts of a structure under fire conditions. A novel steel connection with high axial and rotational ductility has been proposed with the objective to improve the performance of steel-framed buildings in fire. Analytical model has been developed to determine the axial displacement of the top and bottom flanges of the beam end at high temperatures. A series of sub-frame models with this ductile connection have been built using Abaqus to study the influence of the characteristics of the connection part between the fin-plate part and face-plate part on the overall connection behaviour. The current critical failure mode of the ductile connection is bolt pull-out from the face-plate zone, and the tensile deformation capacity of the connection is not fully utilized. Therefore, measures to improve the bolt pull-out failure mode of the connection have been tested using the Abaqus sub-frame models, including adding a strengthening plate to the face-plate part of the connection and increasing the connection plate thickness. The simulation results show that the bearing failure of the beam web will become another critical failure mode of the connection, once the bolt pull-out failure is eliminated. To further optimize the high-temperature performance of the connection, the Abaqus steel frame models have also been used to test some measures to delay the occurrence of the beam web bearing failure, including adding strengthening plates to the part of the beam web in contact with the connection, and improving the material properties of the part of the beam web around the bolt holes at high temperatures.

在火灾条件下,连接件是结构中最脆弱的部分。为了提高钢结构建筑在火灾中的性能,我们提出了一种具有高轴向和旋转延展性的新型钢连接。我们建立了分析模型,以确定高温条件下梁端顶部和底部翼缘的轴向位移。使用 Abaqus 建立了一系列具有这种延性连接的子框架模型,以研究鳍板部分和面板部分之间的连接部分的特性对整体连接行为的影响。目前,该延性连接的关键失效模式是螺栓从面板区拉出,连接的拉伸变形能力没有得到充分利用。因此,使用 Abaqus 子框架模型对改善螺栓拉出失效模式的措施进行了测试,包括在连接的面板部分添加加强板和增加连接板厚度。模拟结果表明,一旦消除了螺栓拉出失效,梁腹板的支座失效将成为连接的另一种关键失效模式。为了进一步优化连接的高温性能,Abaqus 钢框架模型还用于测试一些延缓梁腹板支承失效发生的措施,包括在梁腹板与连接接触的部分增加加强板,以及改善螺栓孔周围梁腹板部分在高温下的材料性能。
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引用次数: 0
Experimental Research on Moisture Transfer, Burning and Charring Behavior of Glue Laminated Larch Under Fire Heating Using Cone Calorimeter 利用锥形量热计对胶合层压落叶松在火加热条件下的水分转移、燃烧和炭化行为进行实验研究
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-03-24 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01545-5
Anyang Sun, Kazunori Harada, Daisaku Nii

Cone calorimeter tests were conducted to investigate the moisture transfer, burning and charring behavior of timber under fire heating. 99 × 99 × 50 mm glue laminated larch specimens were made in cross grain and straight grain directions. The initial average moisture contents were 15.1 wt. % (cross grain specimens) and 13.5 wt.% (straight grain specimens). Twenty specimens were heated at 50 kW/m2 of irradiance. Heating duration was varied between 10 to 50 min. Internal temperatures, surface temperature, heat release rate, and moisture contents were measured during heating. Charred depth, colored depth and burnt-out depth was measured after cooling. Heat release rate was measured by oxygen consumption method. Temperature was measured by an IR camera and thermocouples. Moisture content was measured by the electrical resistance method. Charring and coloring temperatures were estimated by using the measured charred or colored depth data and temperature histories. Burnt-out depth, charred depth and colored depth were slightly larger in case of straight grain specimens than that in cross grain specimens. Heat release rates were almost constant after reaching the first peak values. Temperature creep was observed in each location at about 100°C, according to evaporation of water. Maximum internal temperature of each specimen at each location increased while heating duration increased. Peak value of moisture content varied by each specimen, but the temperatures corresponding with peak moisture content were almost the same, i.e., around 100°C to 120°C. Moving speed of moisture peak is about 1.30 mm/min. Charring and coloring temperature were about 380 and 260°C, respectively.

为了研究木材在火加热条件下的水分转移、燃烧和炭化行为,我们进行了锥形量热仪试验。在横纹和直纹方向上制作了 99 × 99 × 50 毫米的胶合层压落叶松试样。初始平均含水率为 15.1%(横纹试样)和 13.5%(直纹试样)。20 个试样在 50 kW/m2 的辐照度下加热。加热时间在 10 至 50 分钟之间变化。在加热过程中测量了内部温度、表面温度、热释放率和水分含量。冷却后测量炭化深度、着色深度和烧焦深度。热释放率通过耗氧量法进行测量。温度用红外摄像机和热电偶测量。水分含量用电阻法测量。炭化和着色温度是通过测量的炭化或着色深度数据和温度历史记录估算的。直纹试样的烧尽深度、炭化深度和着色深度略大于横纹试样。热释放率在达到第一个峰值后几乎保持不变。根据水的蒸发情况,每个位置的温度都在 100°C 左右出现了蠕变。随着加热时间的延长,每个位置试样的最高内部温度都在上升。每个试样的含水量峰值各不相同,但与含水量峰值相对应的温度几乎相同,即约 100°C 至 120°C。水分峰值的移动速度约为 1.30 毫米/分钟。炭化和着色温度分别约为 380°C 和 260°C。
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引用次数: 0
The Development of Automatic Sprinkler System Concepts for Maritime Vehicle Carriers 为海上运载工具开发自动喷水灭火系统概念
IF 2.3 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2024-03-24 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-024-01563-3
Magnus Arvidson, Örjan Westlund

Closed ro-ro spaces on maritime vehicle carriers are usually protected by a total-flooding carbon dioxide system. Such systems have many benefits, for example that there are no residues that can adversely affect the protected objects (in this case thousands of vehicles) and the agent is electrically non-conductive. However, there could be a considerable time delay from the start of a fire until the carbon dioxide system is discharged. Experience has shown that this delay time can cause significant fire damage and jeopardize the performance of the system. Within the EU funded LASH FIRE project, design and installation guidelines for supplementary automatic water-based fire sprinkler systems were developed. An important design feature is that the system automatically activates at an early stage of a fire. This would allow more time to fight the fire manually or to safely evacuate the space and discharge the CO2 system when the fire is controlled to one or a few vehicles instead of at a time when it has escalated in size. The work was partly based on a comprehensive literature review that identified relevant standards and information applicable to the design of automatic fire sprinkler and deluge water spray systems. Large-scale fire tests verified that the suggested system designs were able to provide control of realistic vehicle fires, including fires in passenger cars and a freight truck.

海运车辆运输船上的封闭式滚装空间通常采用二氧化碳全淹没系统进行保护。这种系统有许多优点,例如没有残留物,不会对受保护的物体(在这种情况下是成千上万的车辆)产生不利影响,而且灭火剂不导电。不过,从火灾发生到二氧化碳系统排出,可能会有相当长的时间延迟。经验表明,这种延迟时间会造成严重的火灾损失,并危及系统的性能。在欧盟资助的 LASH FIRE 项目中,制定了辅助自动水基消防水喷淋管道系统的设计和安装指南。该系统的一个重要设计特点是在火灾初期自动启动。这样,当火势被控制在只有一辆或几辆车时,而不是火势扩大时,就有更多的时间进行人工灭火,或安全疏散空间并释放二氧化碳系统。这项工作部分基于全面的文献综述,确定了适用于自动消防水喷淋管道和脱水喷淋系统设计的相关标准和信息。大规模火灾试验证明,建议的系统设计能够控制现实中的车辆火灾,包括客车和货运卡车火灾。
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引用次数: 0
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Fire Technology
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