Computers & Education最新文献

{"title":"Effects of LLM use and note-taking on reading comprehension and memory: A randomised experiment in secondary schools","authors":"Pia Kreijkes ,&nbsp;Viktor Kewenig ,&nbsp;Martina Kuvalja ,&nbsp;Mina Lee ,&nbsp;Jake M. Hofman ,&nbsp;Sylvia Vitello ,&nbsp;Abigail Sellen ,&nbsp;Sean Rintel ,&nbsp;Daniel G. Goldstein ,&nbsp;David Rothschild ,&nbsp;Lev Tankelevitch ,&nbsp;Tim Oates","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105514","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105514","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Students' rapid uptake of Generative Artificial Intelligence tools, particularly large language models (LLMs), raises urgent questions about their effects on learning. We compared the impact of LLM use to that of traditional note-taking, or a combination of both, on secondary school students' reading comprehension and retention. We conducted a pre-registered, randomised controlled experiment with within- and between-participant design elements in schools in England. 405 students, aged 14–15 years, studied two text passages and completed comprehension and retention tests three days later. Quantitative results demonstrated that both note-taking alone and combined with LLM use had significant positive effects on retention and comprehension compared to using the LLM alone. Yet, most students preferred using the LLM over note-taking, and perceived it as more helpful. Qualitative results revealed that many students valued the LLM for making complex material more accessible and reducing cognitive load, while they appreciated note-taking for promoting deeper engagement and aiding memory. Additionally, we identified “archetypes” of prompting behaviour, offering insights into the different ways students interacted with the LLM. Overall, our findings suggest that, while note-taking promotes cognitive engagement and long-term comprehension and retention, LLMs may facilitate initial understanding and student interest. The study reveals the continued importance of traditional learning activities, the benefits of combining LLM use with traditional learning over using LLMs alone, and the AI skills that students need to maximise those benefits.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"243 ","pages":"Article 105514"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145583828","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Leveraging prompt-based LLMs for automated scoring and feedback generation in higher education","authors":"Eman Mudhi AlGhamdi ,&nbsp;Yuheng Li ,&nbsp;Dragan Gašević ,&nbsp;Guanliang Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105511","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105511","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As demand grows for personalized, scalable assessments in higher education (including both scoring and feedback provision), large language models (LLMs) have emerged as promising tools. While human educators typically perform scoring and feedback in a sequential and interrelated manner, existing research has largely addressed these tasks separately. This raises important questions about LLMs’ ability to handle scoring and feedback within a single workflow and the extent to which task sequencing affects their performance. To address this gap, this study investigates how prompting LLMs to perform scoring and feedback either together in one single prompt (prompt composition) or separately in two consecutive prompts (prompt decomposition), and the order in which these tasks are prompted affect the performance of GPT-4o, a cutting-edge LLM, in postgraduate open-ended assessments. We analyzed the scoring performance across student groups of varying performance levels. To tailor GPT-4o-generated feedback to individual student learning needs, we embedded well-established learner-centered feedback principles into the prompt design and assessed the quality of the generated feedback based on these principles. The scoring results revealed that prompt effectiveness varied modestly across student groups, with higher scoring errors on lower quality submissions. In terms of generated feedback, GPT-4o demonstrated greater support for learner agency. Task order influenced how this agency was expressed: prompting feedback first fostered learner autonomy, while prompting it after scoring emphasized the student–teacher connection.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"243 ","pages":"Article 105511"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145609032","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Augmented reality and generative learning in K-12 writing: Performance outcomes and the mediating roles of motivation and metacognition","authors":"Ming Li ,&nbsp;Xin-Xiang Wang ,&nbsp;Yuting Chen ,&nbsp;Mutlu Cukurova","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105538","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105538","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Writing requires both metacognitive support for cognitive monitoring to ensure clear and logical organization of ideas and motivation to sustain this process. These factors complicate writing instruction. In K–12 education, writing instruction often does not provide authentic learning experiences, resulting in low student motivation. Augmented reality (AR), which enhances real-world contexts with interactive virtual elements, has been shown to increase motivation, yet it may also introduce extraneous processing that does not effectively support metacognitive development during writing. By contrast, generative learning strategies (e.g., summarizing, imagining, and self-testing) are well recognized for fostering metacognition by prompting learners to actively organize and integrate knowledge to construct coherent mental representations, but they are often perceived as cognitively effortful and thus struggle to sustain student motivation. To overcome these limitations, this study integrates AR with generative learning strategies to propose a generative-learning-based AR (GLAR) approach. This approach aims to combine the motivational benefits of AR with the metacognitive benefits of generative learning strategies to support students' writing. Additionally, the mediating roles of motivation and metacognition in the effects of pedagogical approach on students' writing performance were examined. The effectiveness of the GLAR approach and the validity of the mediation model were evaluated in a quasi-experimental study involving 117 pupils in China. The students were randomly assigned to one of three groups: the experimental group, which received the GLAR intervention; control group 1, which received a generative learning (GL) intervention without AR; and control group 2, which received an AR-based learning (AL) intervention without GL. The following results were obtained. (1) The GLAR group outperformed the AL group in writing accuracy, organization, and metacognition. (2) The GLAR group outperformed the GL group in writing organization, creativity, motivation, and metacognition. (3) Compared with the AL approach, the GLAR approach improved writing accuracy, organization, and overall writing performance through metacognition as a mediator. (4) Compared with the GL approach, the GLAR approach improved writing creativity and overall writing performance through motivation as a mediator and improved writing organization through the sequential mediation of motivation and metacognition. The present results demonstrated both the effectiveness of the proposed GLAR approach in improving students’ writing performance and the mediating role of motivation in its effect on metacognition.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"244 ","pages":"Article 105538"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145753449","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development and validation of the HOPE (Helping Online Parents with Engagement) instrument for measuring parents’ ability to support online learner engagement","authors":"Qi Guo ,&nbsp;Richard E. West ,&nbsp;Jered Borup","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105528","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105528","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this study, we developed and collect initial evidence of the validity of scores from an instrument to identify parents' perceptions of their ability to support their students' engagement in online learning. The instrument can also diagnose what level and type of help they need. This study randomly split 660 participating parents from seven K–12 Indiana online schools into two subgroups. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for one group to form constructs regarding the number of factors represented by the items. We then conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the second group data to assess the factors generated from the EFA results. The results indicated good fit for a three-factor model representing three constructs: (a) parent perceptions of their learner's independent engagement, (b) parents' confidence to support student engagement, (c) school provided support to parents. Items demonstrated strong reliability within each factor.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"244 ","pages":"Article 105528"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732458","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Brain–Computer Interface driven BOPPPS: Empirical evidence for enhanced educational practices","authors":"Yang An,&nbsp;Steven W. Su","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105550","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105550","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Current educational practices often fall short in delivering personalized instruction, accurately assessing teaching effectiveness, and fostering interactivity in educational settings. Integrating Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) technology with the BOPPPS (Bridge-in, Objective, Pre-assessment, Participatory Learning, Post-assessment, and Summary) teaching model may offer a promising solution to these challenges, yet remains largely unexplored. This study employed a quasi-experimental design involving 24 undergraduate students. The experimental group utilized a BCI-enhanced Scripted Performance-based BOPPPS model (SP-BOPPPS), while the control group followed the traditional BOPPPS model. The instructional approach was examined using electroencephalogram (EEG) data, classroom tests, and project completion evaluations. Preliminary results suggested that students using the SP-BOPPPS model appeared to show higher test scores and project completion outcomes than those using the traditional BOPPPS model, although these observations were made across different but closely related course topics. EEG analysis from this small exploratory sub-sample of four participants suggested preliminary trends toward higher attention levels and more positive emotional states under the SP-BOPPPS model. These qualitative observations may indicate that BCI technology helps provide real-time information about students’ cognitive and emotional states, potentially supporting more personalized instructional adjustments. Taken together, these tentative findings suggest that integrating BCI into traditional teaching models may offer a promising direction for supporting student engagement, and the study provides early empirical indications and a potential framework for applying BCI-based technologies in educational contexts. Future research with larger and more diverse student samples, as well as fully randomized controlled designs using identical instructional content, will be essential for assessing the robustness and generalizability of these preliminary findings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"244 ","pages":"Article 105550"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145784991","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Understanding the relationships among ICT use, self-efficacy, and achievement in PISA 2022: A multigroup analysis featuring gender and immigrant status","authors":"Mitcho Hristov ,&nbsp;Takumi Yada ,&nbsp;Janne Fagerlund ,&nbsp;Piia Näykki ,&nbsp;Päivi Häkkinen","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105539","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105539","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the relationships among students’ use of ICT for learning and leisure, self-efficacy in digital competencies, and achievement in math, reading, and science, and compares differences based on gender and immigrant background. Previous studies show inconsistent relationships among these variables. Student background affects the use of ICT, and while self-efficacy may vary depending on the subject, it has had positive effects on academic achievement. In this study, self-efficacy in digital competencies is viewed as two different competence beliefs: computer and information literacy (CIL) and computational thinking (CT). Although self-efficacy in CIL and CT has had varying effects on digital skills, the effects on math, reading, and science are not well studied. We analyzed Finnish data (<em>N</em> = 10,239) from PISA 2022 using general and multigroup structural equation modelling. We found that ICT use for learning had little to no practical significance across groups. ICT use for leisure and self-efficacy in CT were associated with being approximately a year or more behind in math, reading, and science across groups. Self-efficacy in CIL was associated with being two or more years ahead and played a protective short-term role as a mediator, especially in immigrants. These findings imply that closer integration of ICT use for learning with subject-specific goals in authentic learning contexts may promote their contribution to achievement. Further research should examine how different uses of ICT and CT skill development interact with subject learning in practice and how schools can be supported in adopting more pedagogically purposeful digital activities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"244 ","pages":"Article 105539"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145784994","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"FLoRA: An advanced AI-powered engine to facilitate hybrid human-AI regulated learning","authors":"Xinyu Li ,&nbsp;Tongguang Li ,&nbsp;Lixiang Yan ,&nbsp;Yuheng Li ,&nbsp;Linxuan Zhao ,&nbsp;Mladen Raković ,&nbsp;Inge Molenaar ,&nbsp;Dragan Gašević ,&nbsp;Yizhou Fan","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105527","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105527","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Self-Regulated Learning (SRL), defined as learners’ ability to systematically plan, monitor, and regulate their learning activities, is crucial for sustained academic achievement and lifelong learning competencies. Emerging AI developments profoundly influence SRL interactions by potentially either diminishing or strengthening learners’ opportunities to exercise their own regulatory skills. Recent literature emphasises a balanced approach termed Hybrid Human-AI Regulated Learning (HHAIRL), in which AI provides targeted, timely scaffolding while preserving the learners’ role as active decision-makers and reflective monitors of their learning process. Central to HHAIRL is the integration of adaptive and personalised learning systems; by modelling each learner’s knowledge and self-regulation patterns, AI can deliver contextually relevant scaffolds that support learners during all phases of the SRL process. Nevertheless, existing digital tools frequently fall short, lacking adaptability and personalisation, focusing narrowly on isolated SRL phases, and insufficiently supporting meaningful human-AI interactions. In response, this paper introduces the enhanced FLoRA Engine, which incorporates advanced generative AI features and state-of-the-art learning analytics, and grounds in solid educational theories. The FLoRA Engine offers tools such as collaborative writing, multi-agent chatbots, and detailed learning trace logging to support dynamic, adaptive scaffolding of self-regulation tailored to individual needs in real time. We further present a summary of several research studies that provide the validations for and illustrate how these tools can be utilised in real-world educational and experimental contexts. These studies demonstrate the effectiveness of FLoRA Engine in fostering SRL, providing both theoretical insights and practical solutions for the future of AI-enhanced learning contexts.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"243 ","pages":"Article 105527"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732459","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Principals’ ethical leadership in the AI Era: A narrative literature review of emerging challenges, strategies, and outcomes","authors":"Chun Sing Maxwell Ho","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105517","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105517","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into education has intensified questions about how principals exercise ethical leadership in the adoption and governance of emerging technologies. This article reports a systematic review of research published between 2018 and July 2025 at the intersection of school leadership, ethics, and AI. Using a PRISMA-informed search databases, 62 peer-reviewed studies were identified and synthesized. The analysis revealed four categories of insight: trends in principals' experiences of dilemmas such as balancing efficiency with equity, strategies for acting in contexts where guidance is limited, influencing factors including policy frameworks and school cultures, and outcomes ranging from increased trust to organizational conflict. From these findings, the Principals' Ethical AI Leadership (PEAIL) framework was developed. The framework conceptualizes leadership not as a linear progression of phases, but as a prism refracting simultaneous demands at individual, organizational, and systemic levels. Despite this emergent body of work, three important gaps remain. First, theoretical approaches are not well integrated across normative, critical, and sociotechnical traditions. Second, leadership preparation and professional learning rarely address AI ethics explicitly. Third, there is little empirical evidence linking principals' ethical choices about AI to classroom practices or to students’ learning and well-being. Future directions include embedding AI ethics into leadership training, designing empirical studies that trace leadership decisions to student outcomes, and developing policies that institutionalize accountability and equity. By identifying these gaps and outlining concrete pathways forward, the article provides both a conceptual framework and a practice-oriented agenda for ethical school leadership in the AI era.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"243 ","pages":"Article 105517"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145657722","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"National contexts and information and communication technology in education: A systematic review of PISA studies","authors":"Minju Kim,&nbsp;Pey-Yan Liou","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105537","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105537","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study summarizes the predictive effects of individual-level information and communication technology (ICT) and country-level factors on students’ learning outcomes, including cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains. Moreover, we synthesized how country-level factors shape the predictive effects of student-level ICT factors on learning outcomes. We systematically reviewed empirical studies that conducted secondary analyses of the <em>Programme for International Student Assessment</em> (PISA) data incorporating country-level factors into their analyses. The analysis showed that the most frequently studied topics in PISA-derived ICT research were student-level ICT attitude and ICT use, followed by country-level factors directly related to ICT. The association between student-level ICT adoption and academic achievement varied depending on the educational setting, such as academic domains and instructional designs. Meanwhile, student attitude was consistently positively associated with learning outcomes. Country-level factors, such as national ICT access in education and human capital indicators, were generally positively associated with learning outcomes. Conversely, national ICT infrastructure and economic indicators showed mixed or negative results. Furthermore, country-level factors moderated the relationship between student-level ICT factors and learning outcomes, exhibiting facilitating, buffering, diminishing, or exacerbating effects. This study highlights that the educational effect of ICT is highly context-dependent, meaning it requires pedagogically aligned integration within learning contexts and institutional support at the broader institutional and national contexts to ensure effective learning outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"244 ","pages":"Article 105537"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145753450","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From users to creators: Design and evaluation of a VR professional development program for educators","authors":"Ali Geri̇ş ,&nbsp;Barış Çukurbaşi ,&nbsp;Yeliz Tunga ,&nbsp;Gizem Engi̇n","doi":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105518","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105518","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As immersive technologies expand in education, a gap persists between teachers’ familiarity with virtual reality (VR) tools and effective pedagogical use. This study designed, implemented, and evaluated a 60-h VR Trainer Training Program using Educational Design Research (EDR) and the Taba-Tyler curriculum model. Sixteen teachers participated in a needs analysis, followed by 42 in-service teachers from 30 provinces in Türkiye engaging in the training program. The curriculum combined theoretical instruction with hands-on practice in tools such as Unity and Blender, supported by scaffolded learning and peer collaboration. Findings show significant gains in technical competence and pedagogical integration, with 85 % of participants producing technically functional VR projects and 72 % aligning them with curricular objectives. Teachers reported increased confidence and a shift from users to creators of VR content, though challenges remained regarding subject-specific examples, limited time for mastering advanced tools, and the need for sustained institutional support. The study offers a scalable model for professional development in immersive learning and underscores the importance of structured training for sustainable VR adoption.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10568,"journal":{"name":"Computers & Education","volume":"243 ","pages":"Article 105518"},"PeriodicalIF":10.5,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145657721","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}