Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-06DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104257
MohammadBagher Mahtabi , Mojtaba Roshan , Md Muhiul Islam Muhit , Alireza Behvar , Meysam Haghshenas
As a high-throughput fatigue data generation testing technique, ultrasonic fatigue (USF) testing at 20 kHz enables rapid evaluation of fatigue behavior, particularly in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes. As temperature strongly influences deformation and fracture mechanisms, and given that many components in service experience cyclic loading under both ambient and non-ambient conditions, studying environment-dependent USF in the high-temperature isothermal and subzero cryogenic regimes has become essential for assessing damage mechanisms under extreme operating environments. At cryogenic temperatures, in particular, many materials exhibit increased stiffness and reduced fracture toughness, which often shift fatigue crack initiation from interior defects, typical of room-temperature HCF and VHCF, to surface or near-surface regions dominated by brittle cleavage or limited plasticity. This review establishes recent progress in cryogenic USF, emphasizing advances in testing methods, thermal management, and mechanistic understanding of crack initiation. It demonstrates that low-temperature USF not only accelerates fatigue assessment but also exposes how reduced temperature alters deformation and crack-initiation pathways, offering new insights for materials design and qualification in aerospace, cryogenic, and high-frequency engineering applications.
{"title":"Cryogenic ultrasonic fatigue: mechanisms, advancements, and insights","authors":"MohammadBagher Mahtabi , Mojtaba Roshan , Md Muhiul Islam Muhit , Alireza Behvar , Meysam Haghshenas","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104257","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104257","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As a high-throughput fatigue data generation testing technique, ultrasonic fatigue (USF) testing at 20 kHz enables rapid evaluation of fatigue behavior, particularly in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes. As temperature strongly influences deformation and fracture mechanisms, and given that many components in service experience cyclic loading under both ambient and non-ambient conditions, studying environment-dependent USF in the high-temperature isothermal and subzero cryogenic regimes has become essential for assessing damage mechanisms under extreme operating environments. At cryogenic temperatures, in particular, many materials exhibit increased stiffness and reduced fracture toughness, which often shift fatigue crack initiation from interior defects, typical of room-temperature HCF and VHCF, to surface or near-surface regions dominated by brittle cleavage or limited plasticity. This review establishes recent progress in cryogenic USF, emphasizing advances in testing methods, thermal management, and mechanistic understanding of crack initiation. It demonstrates that low-temperature USF not only accelerates fatigue assessment but also exposes how reduced temperature alters deformation and crack-initiation pathways, offering new insights for materials design and qualification in aerospace, cryogenic, and high-frequency engineering applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104257"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104267
Wei Zhou , Zhihua Zhang , Weiwei Zhang , Wei Liu , Donghui Liu
The racetrack NbTi superconducting coil is a critical component for high-field magnet applications especially maglev trains, yet its stable operation at 4.2 K presents significant challenges under mechanical and electromagnetic loads. The frictional heat generated at internal contact interfaces poses a particular threat to thermal stability, potentially leading to quench. This paper develops a sequential multiscale framework to investigate the coupled thermo-mechanical responses of the coil. A microscopic representative volume element (RVE) of the NbTi strand is established and homogenized to derive equivalent orthotropic properties, which are applied in the macroscopic finite element model of the racetrack coil. The coupled analysis is performed considering different contact settings under both external pressure and electromagnetic force loading conditions. The study highlights that internal strand contacts cause evident increase in local contact pressure and temperature, with the latter rising to 26.5 K under pressure loading condition, far exceeding the NbTi critical temperature. The critical contact pressure threshold is identified, beyond which rapid temperature escalation occurs. The temperature dependence is also discussed to evaluate the material variation. The proposed method provides an effective tool for assessing the multiscale thermo-mechanical behavior of superconducting coils and offers valuable insights for magnet design and stability optimization.
{"title":"Coupled thermo-mechanical analysis of racetrack NbTi superconducting coil under pressures and electromagnetic forces","authors":"Wei Zhou , Zhihua Zhang , Weiwei Zhang , Wei Liu , Donghui Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104267","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104267","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The racetrack NbTi superconducting coil is a critical component for high-field magnet applications especially maglev trains, yet its stable operation at 4.2 K presents significant challenges under mechanical and electromagnetic loads. The frictional heat generated at internal contact interfaces poses a particular threat to thermal stability, potentially leading to quench. This paper develops a sequential multiscale framework to investigate the coupled thermo-mechanical responses of the coil. A microscopic representative volume element (RVE) of the NbTi strand is established and homogenized to derive equivalent orthotropic properties, which are applied in the macroscopic finite element model of the racetrack coil. The coupled analysis is performed considering different contact settings under both external pressure and electromagnetic force loading conditions. The study highlights that internal strand contacts cause evident increase in local contact pressure and temperature, with the latter rising to 26.5 K under pressure loading condition, far exceeding the NbTi critical temperature. The critical contact pressure threshold is identified, beyond which rapid temperature escalation occurs. The temperature dependence is also discussed to evaluate the material variation. The proposed method provides an effective tool for assessing the multiscale thermo-mechanical behavior of superconducting coils and offers valuable insights for magnet design and stability optimization.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104267"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145786872","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-11-20DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104250
Yiming Zhou , Boyi Zhao , Yuchen He , Zhichuan Huang , Zigang Deng , Weihua Zhang
In practical research of high-temperature superconducting (HTS) maglev, a compulsory centering alignment operation between the superconducting levitator and permanent magnet guideway (PMG) is completed before field cooling (FC) process. However, errors in installation, positioning, and machining may lead to an eccentric state between the superconducting levitator and PMG before the FC process, which essentially means the geometric center of the internal HTS bulks is eccentric from that of the PMG. Therefore, this study investigates the effects of eccentric field cooling (EFC) on the levitation and guidance performance of HTS maglev. Specifically, a Halbach-type PMG is employed, and the eccentric displacement (ED) of bulks is set before FC process. Then during the levitation process, lateral displacement (LD) between bulks and PMG is applied to generate the guidance force. Results show that the EFC can adversely affect the levitation force, and this detrimental effect intensifies with increasing ED. During the LD process, when LD and ED are in the same direction, the reduction in levitation force increases with higher LD; conversely, when LD and ED are in opposite directions, the reduction decreases with increasing LD. Regarding the guidance force, at the initial of LD, appropriate EFC can enhance it, but excessive ED or LD values will negatively impact guidance force. These findings suggest that, in applications requiring high levitation performance, strict centering alignment operation before FC is essential. In contrast, for systems prioritizing guidance performance, appropriate applied EFC may be an effective optimization strategy.
{"title":"Influence of eccentric field cooling on levitation and guidance performance of HTS maglev based on Halbach-type PMG","authors":"Yiming Zhou , Boyi Zhao , Yuchen He , Zhichuan Huang , Zigang Deng , Weihua Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104250","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104250","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In practical research of high-temperature superconducting (HTS) maglev, a compulsory centering alignment operation between the superconducting levitator and permanent magnet guideway (PMG) is completed before field cooling (FC) process. However, errors in installation, positioning, and machining may lead to an eccentric state between the superconducting levitator and PMG before the FC process, which essentially means the geometric center of the internal HTS bulks is eccentric from that of the PMG. Therefore, this study investigates the effects of eccentric field cooling (EFC) on the levitation and guidance performance of HTS maglev. Specifically, a Halbach-type PMG is employed, and the eccentric displacement (ED) of bulks is set before FC process. Then during the levitation process, lateral displacement (LD) between bulks and PMG is applied to generate the guidance force. Results show that the EFC can adversely affect the levitation force, and this detrimental effect intensifies with increasing ED. During the LD process, when LD and ED are in the same direction, the reduction in levitation force increases with higher LD; conversely, when LD and ED are in opposite directions, the reduction decreases with increasing LD. Regarding the guidance force, at the initial of LD, appropriate EFC can enhance it, but excessive ED or LD values will negatively impact guidance force. These findings suggest that, in applications requiring high levitation performance, strict centering alignment operation before FC is essential. In contrast, for systems prioritizing guidance performance, appropriate applied EFC may be an effective optimization strategy.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104250"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145616144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-16DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104265
Chuanyi Zhao , Huan Jin , Guanyu Xiao , Le Wang , Peng Gao , Chao Zhou , Jinggang Qin
The REBCO conductor on round core (CORC) cable, featuring high mechanical strength and high current density, has emerged as the preferred option for high-field superconducting magnets. Considering economic and safety factors, the large-scale nested superconducting magnets wound from these cables are designed to adopt demountable lap joints to realize electrical connections between sub-coils. This study focuses on comparing lap joints based on the REBCO CORC cable prepared from different materials, and testing their performance at 77 K and self-field. The results indicate that the deformable fine indium wires used as the inserts results in the lowest resistance of the REBCO CORC lap joints. Moreover, the resistivity of the connecting material is not the only factor affecting the performance of the lap joints, the material adhesion effect on the joint surface and the thickness of the material are also related to the performance of the lap joints. The conclusions are informative for the development of large aperture nested REBCO CORC magnets.
{"title":"Effects of connection conditions on lap joint performance in REBCO CORC cables","authors":"Chuanyi Zhao , Huan Jin , Guanyu Xiao , Le Wang , Peng Gao , Chao Zhou , Jinggang Qin","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104265","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104265","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The REBCO conductor on round core (CORC) cable, featuring high mechanical strength and high current density, has emerged as the preferred option for high-field superconducting magnets. Considering economic and safety factors, the large-scale nested superconducting magnets wound from these cables are designed to adopt demountable lap joints to realize electrical connections between sub-coils. This study focuses on comparing lap joints based on the REBCO CORC cable prepared from different materials, and testing their performance at 77 K and self-field. The results indicate that the deformable fine indium wires used as the inserts results in the lowest resistance of the REBCO CORC lap joints. Moreover, the resistivity of the connecting material is not the only factor affecting the performance of the lap joints, the material adhesion effect on the joint surface and the thickness of the material are also related to the performance of the lap joints. The conclusions are informative for the development of large aperture nested REBCO CORC magnets.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104265"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145786873","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-04DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104260
Yafeng Niu , Lulu Hu , Yingwen Liu , Bo Gao
Active control is a flexible and cost-effective method for mitigating the thermoacoustic instability, a common issue in cryogenic systems. Under active control, the oscillation amplitude may be effectively attenuated when the self-excited oscillatory system undergoes asynchronous quenching. In this paper, the forcing parameters were adjusted to achieve asynchronous quenching in a cryogenic helium tube system under open-loop control. When the forcing frequency deviates significantly from the self-excited frequency, it was found that as the forcing intensity increases, the system undergoes the torus-birth bifurcation, transitioning from periodic to quasi-periodic, followed by the torus-death bifurcation, transitioning from quasi-periodic to periodic, eventually locking into the external forcing. The occurrence of asynchronous quenching coincides with the torus-death bifurcation. The oscillation amplitude can be reduced by 32% before locking into external forcing. Furthermore, the response characteristics of pressure and heat absorption rate to external forcing were analyzed. The results indicate that the heat absorption rate responds more quickly to the external forcing. As the forcing intensity increases, the forced system exhibits an amplitude modulation phenomenon like “beats”. Unlike the linear superposition of self-excited oscillation and external forcing, the observed amplitude variations are found to be related to the phase difference between pressure and heat absorption rate.
{"title":"Asynchronous quenching in cryogenic thermoacoustic systems under active control","authors":"Yafeng Niu , Lulu Hu , Yingwen Liu , Bo Gao","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104260","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104260","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Active control is a flexible and cost-effective method for mitigating the thermoacoustic instability, a common issue in cryogenic systems. Under active control, the oscillation amplitude may be effectively attenuated when the self-excited oscillatory system undergoes asynchronous quenching. In this paper, the forcing parameters were adjusted to achieve asynchronous quenching in a cryogenic helium tube system under open-loop control. When the forcing frequency deviates significantly from the self-excited frequency, it was found that as the forcing intensity increases, the system undergoes the torus-birth bifurcation, transitioning from periodic to quasi-periodic, followed by the torus-death bifurcation, transitioning from quasi-periodic to periodic, eventually locking into the external forcing. The occurrence of asynchronous quenching coincides with the torus-death bifurcation. The oscillation amplitude can be reduced by 32% before locking into external forcing. Furthermore, the response characteristics of pressure and heat absorption rate to external forcing were analyzed. The results indicate that the heat absorption rate responds more quickly to the external forcing. As the forcing intensity increases, the forced system exhibits an amplitude modulation phenomenon like “beats”. Unlike the linear superposition of self-excited oscillation and external forcing, the observed amplitude variations are found to be related to the phase difference between pressure and heat absorption rate.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104260"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145733054","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-04DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104254
M. Shawky Ismail , M. Abd ElSalam ElSeuofy , Abdelhamid Attia , Wael M. El-Maghlany , Mohamed ElHelw
Efficient and environmentally responsible liquefied hydrogen storage systems are pivotal for advancing the global hydrogen economy and supporting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, the high energy demand and carbon footprint of conventional hydrogen liquefaction remain major barriers to large-scale deployment. This study presents a conceptual design for transcritical pseudo-liquid hydrogen with a density of 70.11 kg/m3, enabled by dual mixed-refrigerant (MR) cycles for pre-cooling and deep cooling, combined with a tertiary nitrogen refrigeration loop. Process simulations were conducted in Aspen HYSYS and optimized using Aspen Optimizer, with a focus on MR composition and key operating parameters. The optimized TCMR configuration achieves a 9 % decrease in specific energy consumption (SEC) to 6.25 kWh/kg H2, compared with the baseline case. It also delivers a Figure of Merit (FOM) of 52.57 %, while lowering product pressure from 100 to 80 bar and keeping compressors safe discharge temperature at a maximum of 126 °C. The economic evaluation indicates a 7 % reduction in operating costs relative to the baseline, yielding a specific liquefaction cost of 1.13 USD/kg. The environmental assessment further shows significant improvements, with a 24.5 % reduction in Scope 1 emissions and a 7.4 % reduction in Scope 2 emissions, resulting in an overall 20 % decrease in carbon footprint compared with the DCMR case. These results confirm the technical feasibility and environmental advantages of the proposed TCMR-based system, offering a high-density, low-carbon, and energy-efficient pathway for next-generation hydrogen liquefaction and storage.
{"title":"Energy, exergy, economic, and environmental assessment of a transcritical triple-cascade mixed refrigerant cycle for hydrogen liquefaction","authors":"M. Shawky Ismail , M. Abd ElSalam ElSeuofy , Abdelhamid Attia , Wael M. El-Maghlany , Mohamed ElHelw","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104254","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104254","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Efficient and environmentally responsible liquefied hydrogen storage systems are pivotal for advancing the global hydrogen economy and supporting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, the high energy demand and carbon footprint of conventional hydrogen liquefaction remain major barriers to large-scale deployment. This study presents a conceptual design for transcritical pseudo-liquid hydrogen with a density of 70.11 kg/m<sup>3</sup>, enabled by dual mixed-refrigerant (MR) cycles for pre-cooling and deep cooling, combined with a tertiary nitrogen refrigeration loop. Process simulations were conducted in Aspen HYSYS and optimized using Aspen Optimizer, with a focus on MR composition and key operating parameters. The optimized TCMR configuration achieves a 9 % decrease in specific energy consumption (SEC) to 6.25 kWh/kg H<sub>2</sub>, compared with the baseline case. It also delivers a Figure of Merit (FOM) of 52.57 %, while lowering product pressure from 100 to 80 bar and keeping compressors safe discharge temperature at a maximum of 126 °C. The economic evaluation indicates a 7 % reduction in operating costs relative to the baseline, yielding a specific liquefaction cost of 1.13 USD/kg. The environmental assessment further shows significant improvements, with a 24.5 % reduction in Scope 1 emissions and a 7.4 % reduction in Scope 2 emissions, resulting in an overall 20 % decrease in carbon footprint compared with the DCMR case. These results confirm the technical feasibility and environmental advantages of the proposed TCMR-based system, offering a high-density, low-carbon, and energy-efficient pathway for next-generation hydrogen liquefaction and storage.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104254"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732957","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-11-19DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104243
Mohammad Kassemi , Sonya Hylton , Olga Kartuzova , Daniel Hauser
This paper presents a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) study of tank self-pressurization during the storage of liquid methane in the Robotic Refueling Mission-3 (RRM3) microgravity experiment, where the pressure was controlled via active cooling. The RRM3 Experiment collected over 4 months of valuable microgravity data regarding the cryogenic storage and transfer of liquid Methane (LCH4) under Zero-Boil-Off (ZBO) conditions. The present study focuses on the donor (or source) Dewar that contained 50 L of cryogenic methane which was preserved using an active cryocooler. Two-phase axisymmetric Sharp-Interface (SI-CFD) and VOF (VOF-CFD) models, which were previously validated and anchored against the 1g cryogenic data which was available from NASA’s large tank experiments, and against 1g and microgravity simulant fluid data which was provided by the recent Zero-Boil-Off Tank (ZBOT) experiment, are employed here to study the self-pressurization segment of the RRM3 experiment during both ground-based and on-orbit tests. The validations of the two models against the 1g RRM3 experimental results indicate an excellent agreement between the predicted and measured tank pressure rise and the fluid and wall temperature evolutions. However, similar comparisons for the microgravity self-pressurization experiment indicate that, while the axisymmetric SI-CFD and VOF-CFD models both predict the rate of self-pressurization with good fidelity, the rate and magnitude of the wall temperature rise are significantly over-predicted and the rate and magnitude of the liquid temperature rise are considerably underpredicted by the SI-CFD model. On the other hand, the VOF-CFD model provides close agreements with both the measured rate of self-pressurization and the experimental evolution of the wall and liquid temperatures during the microgravity test. The VOF-CFD model’s good agreement with the measured wall temperatures is, however, attributed to a nonintuitive forced convection produced by an oscillatory interfacial movement during the VOF microgravity simulation. Since there is a great likelihood that the oscillatory interfacial motion is a numerical artifact, future work will focus on other mechanisms for the enhancement of the wall heat transfer in the RRM3 Donor tank for complete validation. CFD predictions of the whole field volume fraction and fluid temperature distributions, and of the fluid velocity vector fields, are presented and discussed to explain the self-pressurization behavior of the RRM3 tank predicted by the CFD model compared to the experiment. Finally, detailed energy distributions predicted by the SI-CFD model and the numerical predictions of a one-dimensional homogeneous thermodynamic model are also presented in order to gain a better understanding of the evolution of the energy distribution in the tank and to explain the nonintuitive self-pressurization behavior of the RRM3 tank in 1 g and microgravity.
{"title":"VOF and sharp interface CFD analyses of a liquid methane self-pressurization experiment in 1 g and microgravity","authors":"Mohammad Kassemi , Sonya Hylton , Olga Kartuzova , Daniel Hauser","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104243","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104243","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper presents a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) study of tank self-pressurization during the storage of liquid methane in the Robotic Refueling Mission-3 (RRM3) microgravity experiment, where the pressure was controlled via active cooling. The RRM3 Experiment collected over 4 months of valuable microgravity data regarding the cryogenic storage and transfer of liquid Methane (LCH4) under Zero-Boil-Off (ZBO) conditions. The present study focuses on the donor (or source) Dewar that contained 50 L of cryogenic methane which was preserved using an active cryocooler. Two-phase axisymmetric Sharp-Interface (SI-CFD) and VOF (VOF-CFD) models, which were previously validated and anchored against the 1g cryogenic data which was available from NASA’s large tank experiments, and against 1g and microgravity simulant fluid data which was provided by the recent Zero-Boil-Off Tank (ZBOT) experiment, are employed here to study the self-pressurization segment of the RRM3 experiment during both ground-based and on-orbit tests. The validations of the two models against the 1g RRM3 experimental results indicate an excellent agreement between the predicted and measured tank pressure rise and the fluid and wall temperature evolutions. However, similar comparisons for the microgravity self-pressurization experiment indicate that, while the axisymmetric SI-CFD and VOF-CFD models both predict the rate of self-pressurization with good fidelity, the rate and magnitude of the wall temperature rise are significantly over-predicted and the rate and magnitude of the liquid temperature rise are considerably underpredicted by the SI-CFD model. On the other hand, the VOF-CFD model provides close agreements with both the measured rate of self-pressurization and the experimental evolution of the wall and liquid temperatures during the microgravity test. The VOF-CFD model’s good agreement with the measured wall temperatures is, however, attributed to a nonintuitive forced convection produced by an oscillatory interfacial movement during the VOF microgravity simulation. Since there is a great likelihood that the oscillatory interfacial motion is a numerical artifact, future work will focus on other mechanisms for the enhancement of the wall heat transfer in the RRM3 Donor tank for complete validation. CFD predictions of the whole field volume fraction and fluid temperature distributions, and of the fluid velocity vector fields, are presented and discussed to explain the self-pressurization behavior of the RRM3 tank predicted by the CFD model compared to the experiment. Finally, detailed energy distributions predicted by the SI-CFD model and the numerical predictions of a one-dimensional homogeneous thermodynamic model are also presented in order to gain a better understanding of the evolution of the energy distribution in the tank and to explain the nonintuitive self-pressurization behavior of the RRM3 tank in 1 g and microgravity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104243"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145616094","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-11-01DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104228
Vahid Pirouzfar , S.Mohammad Hossein Hosseini , Chia-Hung Su
This study focuses on three optimized production and peak shaving methods: Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), which were chosen for integration into the gas network. These three peak shaving methods were compared for the first time from both economic and technical perspectives to provide a beneficial solution for decision-making in peak consumption management and natural gas storage. To evaluate the technical viability and economic feasibility of these technologies, Aspen HYSYS was used for technical analysis, while the Aspen Process Economic Analyzer was employed for economic evaluation. The findings indicated that SNG produced from liquefied petroleum gas emerged as the most economically and technically favorable option for addressing the natural gas shortfall when compared to other alternatives. For the SNG system, spherical storage tanks with a total capacity of 100,000 tons of LPG are constructed. With the establishment of 10 stations, each containing 60 storage cylinders with a capacity of 1,770 tons, the shortfall in city gas is effectively managed. Additionally, the total expenses for six SNG stations were calculated, with the primary costs attributed to the storage tanks.
本研究重点研究了三种优化的生产和调峰方法：合成天然气（SNG）、液化天然气（LNG）和压缩天然气（CNG），并将其整合到天然气网络中。首次从经济和技术角度对三种调峰方式进行了比较，为调峰管理和天然气储气决策提供了有益的解决方案。为了评估这些技术的技术可行性和经济可行性，使用Aspen HYSYS进行技术分析，使用Aspen Process economic Analyzer进行经济评价。研究结果表明，与其他替代方案相比，液化石油气生产的SNG成为解决天然气短缺问题最经济和技术上最有利的选择。SNG系统建设了总容量为10万吨LPG的球形储罐。随着10个加气站的建立，每个加气站有60个储气瓶，容量为1770吨，有效地解决了城市燃气短缺问题。此外，计算了6个煤制天然气站的总费用，其中主要费用归属于储罐。
{"title":"Liquified, Compressed, and Synthesized natural gas production for peak Shaving: Techno-Economic Evaluations","authors":"Vahid Pirouzfar , S.Mohammad Hossein Hosseini , Chia-Hung Su","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104228","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104228","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study focuses on three optimized production and peak shaving methods: Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), which were chosen for integration into the gas network. These three peak shaving methods were compared for the first time from both economic and technical perspectives to provide a beneficial solution for decision-making in peak consumption management and natural gas storage. To evaluate the technical viability and economic feasibility of these technologies, Aspen HYSYS was used for technical analysis, while the Aspen Process Economic Analyzer was employed for economic evaluation. The findings indicated that SNG produced from liquefied petroleum gas emerged as the most economically and technically favorable option for addressing the natural gas shortfall when compared to other alternatives. For the SNG system, spherical storage tanks with a total capacity of 100,000 tons of LPG are constructed. With the establishment of 10 stations, each containing 60 storage cylinders with a capacity of 1,770 tons, the shortfall in city gas is effectively managed. Additionally, the total expenses for six SNG stations were calculated, with the primary costs attributed to the storage tanks.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104228"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145578339","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104253
Shanshan Sun , Wenquan Jiang , Fan Yang , Changshun Wang , Junjie Liu , Meng Yang
Liquid hydrogen storage currently represents the most prominent method among hydrogen storage technologies. To minimize the energy demand of the hydrogen liquefaction system, a hydrogen liquefaction system which utilizes liquefied natural gas (LNG) and a nitrogen (N2) reverse Brayton cycle for cascade pre-cooling of hydrogen is designed. The comparative analysis of the proposed hydrogen liquefaction improvement system with other systems shows that the proposed system has great advantages. Through systematic optimization, the system achieves a specific energy consumption (SEC) of 5.24 kWh/kgLH2, a coefficient of performance (COP) of 0.254, and an exergy efficiency (ηex) of 58.88%. Furthermore, by leveraging the surplus cold energy from LNG for pre-cooling the cryogenic refrigerant prior to inter-stage compression in the cryogenic cooling process, the SEC decreases by 8.87% and ηex increases by 8.83% compared to conventional ambient temperature pre-cooling methods.
{"title":"Optimization and analysis of a new liquefied natural gas and nitrogen cascade pre-cooling hydrogen liquefaction process","authors":"Shanshan Sun , Wenquan Jiang , Fan Yang , Changshun Wang , Junjie Liu , Meng Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104253","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104253","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Liquid hydrogen storage currently represents the most prominent method among hydrogen storage technologies. To minimize the energy demand of the hydrogen liquefaction system, a hydrogen liquefaction system which utilizes liquefied natural gas (LNG) and a nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) reverse Brayton cycle for cascade pre-cooling of hydrogen is designed. The comparative analysis of the proposed hydrogen liquefaction improvement system with other systems shows that the proposed system has great advantages. Through systematic optimization, the system achieves a specific energy consumption (SEC) of 5.24 kWh/kg<sub>LH2</sub>, a coefficient of performance (COP) of 0.254, and an exergy efficiency (<em>η</em><sub>ex</sub>) of 58.88%. Furthermore, by leveraging the surplus cold energy from LNG for pre-cooling the cryogenic refrigerant prior to inter-stage compression in the cryogenic cooling process, the SEC decreases by 8.87% and <em>η</em><sub>ex</sub> increases by 8.83% compared to conventional ambient temperature pre-cooling methods.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104253"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145682050","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104241
Erick Moreno Resendiz , Nikhil Dani , Prasanna Jayaramu , Sarada Kuravi , Vimal Chaitanya , Mark Zagarola , Edgar R. Canavan , Krishna Kota
A theoretical framework has been developed for designing printed circuit-type heat exchangers (PCHE) used for heat recuperation in DC-type space cryocoolers. Unlike conventional recuperative heat exchanger (RHEX) models, this new approach comprehensively integrates all the design considerations of thermal, fluid, structural and size, weight, and power (SWaP) within a broad design space. In addition, it uniquely evaluates performance using three key design criteria: effectiveness, entropy generation, and the goodness factor, which were typically treated in isolation in prior models. The model has been validated against existing experimental data for heat exchangers and focuses on optimizing the RHEX’s geometric parameters—the channel length, width, height, and number—to maximize heat transfer while minimizing pressure drop, all within stringently defined design thresholds of a state-of-the-art reverse Brayton cryocooler. From an effectiveness standpoint, the optimal design favors fewer but longer channels, increasing heat transfer area, and reducing axial wall conduction. In contrast, minimizing entropy generation leads to a design with an increased number of shorter channels, which lowers the mass flow rate per channel and associated pressure drop. However, the goodness factor is mainly influenced by the aspect ratio of the channel rather than the absolute dimensions. Ultimately, the study reveals the following: (1) it is important to simultaneously include all of the design considerations for proper design and (2) optimizing for all three design criteria simultaneously is inherently challenging. As a result, RHEX design must prioritize the most relevant performance metric based on the specific requirements of the intended application instead of randomly choosing either effectiveness, entropy generation, or goodness factor as the guiding metric. The physical reasons behind the findings are also discussed.
{"title":"A comprehensive theoretical framework for designing printed circuit-type cryogenic heat recuperators","authors":"Erick Moreno Resendiz , Nikhil Dani , Prasanna Jayaramu , Sarada Kuravi , Vimal Chaitanya , Mark Zagarola , Edgar R. Canavan , Krishna Kota","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104241","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104241","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A theoretical framework has been developed for designing printed circuit-type heat exchangers (PCHE) used for heat recuperation in DC-type space cryocoolers. Unlike conventional recuperative heat exchanger (RHEX) models, this new approach comprehensively integrates all the design considerations of thermal, fluid, structural and size, weight, and power (SWaP) within a broad design space. In addition, it uniquely evaluates performance using three key design criteria: effectiveness, entropy generation, and the goodness factor, which were typically treated in isolation in prior models. The model has been validated against existing experimental data for heat exchangers and focuses on optimizing the RHEX’s geometric parameters—the channel length, width, height, and number—to maximize heat transfer while minimizing pressure drop, all within stringently defined design thresholds of a state-of-the-art reverse Brayton cryocooler. From an effectiveness standpoint, the optimal design favors fewer but longer channels, increasing heat transfer area, and reducing axial wall conduction. In contrast, minimizing entropy generation leads to a design with an increased number of shorter channels, which lowers the mass flow rate per channel and associated pressure drop. However, the goodness factor is mainly influenced by the aspect ratio of the channel rather than the absolute dimensions. Ultimately, the study reveals the following: (1) it is important to simultaneously include all of the design considerations for proper design and (2) optimizing for all three design criteria simultaneously is inherently challenging. As a result, RHEX design must prioritize the most relevant performance metric based on the specific requirements of the intended application instead of randomly choosing either effectiveness, entropy generation, or goodness factor as the guiding metric. The physical reasons behind the findings are also discussed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104241"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145786874","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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