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Effect of organic amendments on growth and yield attributes of medicinal and aromatic plants under peach-based agroforestry system in the mid-hills of the Western Himalayas 有机改良剂对西喜马拉雅中山桃源农林复合系统药用和芳香植物生长及产量属性的影响
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-09-13 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1812444
P. Tripathi, Kashyap, Shipra Shah
ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to assess the effect of organic manures on the growth and yield of three medicinal plant species (Andrographis paniculata, Withania somnifera and Ocimum sanctum) in an experimental peach-based agroforestry system. The experiment lasted 2 years. It was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with three replications each year, made up of 10 treatments for each medicinal plant at three different doses of vermicompost (2 t/ha, 4 t/ha, 6 t/ha) and three different doses of farmyard manure (15 t/ha, 20 t/ha, 25 t/ha) with or without peach trees. It was observed that the three species could successfully be cultivated as intercrops under peach without any adverse impact on their performance and production ability. Growth and yield attributes of MAPs were higher when intercropped under peach than under sole cropping system. The application of organic amendments had a significant effect on growth and yield of MAPs with superior performance at higher doses. This study emphasizes the potential of integrating medicinal plants in existing fruit-based systems as an efficient strategy for traditional farming communities in the Indian Himalayas to maximize land use efficiency and minimize resource degradation.
摘要以桃树为基础,研究了有机肥对3种药用植物穿心莲(Andrographis paniculata)、Withania somnifera和Ocimum sanctum生长和产量的影响。实验持续了2年。试验采用随机区组设计,每年进行3次重复,对每种药用植物进行10次处理,使用3种不同剂量的蚯蚓堆肥(2吨/公顷、4吨/公顷、6吨/公顷)和3种不同剂量的农家肥(15吨/公顷、20吨/公顷、25吨/公顷),有或没有桃树。结果表明,这3个品种均可作为间作栽培,对其生产性能和生产能力无不利影响。间作桃树的生长和产量性状均高于单作。施用有机改性剂对map的生长和产量有显著影响,且在高剂量下表现优异。这项研究强调了将药用植物整合到现有的水果系统中的潜力,作为印度喜马拉雅地区传统农业社区最大化土地利用效率和最小化资源退化的有效策略。
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引用次数: 1
Re-reading Nepalese landscapes: labour, water, farming patches and trees 重读尼泊尔风景:劳动力、水、农田和树木
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-09-08 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1814875
K. Marquardt, A. Pain, D. Khatri
ABSTRACT In this paper we use a patches approach to study changes in local land-use practices in response to constraints of labour and the increasing effects of climate change. Drawing on a mix of different participatory exercises and in-depth interviews we describe five categories of land use patches in two contrasting study areas in Nepal. We examine how decreasing access to land, labour and water generate socially differentiated local landscapes. Our findings point toward adaptive land-use responses that secure a subsistence production, encourage close integration between crop and tree land practices, but are supported by a remittance economy. This logic of local land use is not recognised by either agricultural or forestry institutions. We argue that an ongoing debate on land abandonment in Nepal is an example of how narrow sectoral understandings fail to comprehend adaptation practices in a complex landscape system.
摘要在本文中,我们使用斑块法来研究当地土地利用实践的变化,以应对劳动力限制和气候变化日益严重的影响。通过不同的参与性练习和深入访谈,我们描述了尼泊尔两个对比研究区的五类土地利用斑块。我们研究了获得土地、劳动力和水的机会减少如何产生社会差异化的地方景观。我们的研究结果指出,适应性的土地利用对策可以确保自给生产,鼓励作物和林地实践之间的紧密结合,但得到汇款经济的支持。农业或林业机构都不承认当地土地利用的这种逻辑。我们认为,尼泊尔正在进行的关于土地废弃的辩论就是一个例子,说明狭隘的部门理解无法理解复杂景观系统中的适应做法。
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引用次数: 9
On-farm effect of bamboo intercropping on soil water content and root distribution in rubber tree plantation 竹林间作对橡胶林土壤水分和根系分布的影响
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-07-28 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1798818
Y. Andriyana, P. Thaler, R. Chiarawipa, Jessada Sopharat
ABSTRACT Introducing permanently an associated crop in rubber plantations may improve biodiversity and soil cover, optimize resource use, and diversify farmer’s income. However, the associated crop may also compete with the rubber trees for resources such as space and water. The case of bamboo-rubber agroforestry system is peculiar, as bamboos present features common to both grasses and trees, they grow fast and are considered strong competitors for water. Soil organic matter and water content, bulk density, root distribution, canopy cover, and rain interception were studied on farm to understand the effects of bamboo intercropped in rubber tree plantation, compared with rubber monoculture in southern Thailand. In the rubber-bamboo association, soil water content was lower in shallow depth, whereas it increased in deeper horizons. There was no significant difference in fine root distribution of rubber trees with or without bamboo; therefore, the total root density (rubber + bamboo) was higher in the association. Canopy cover and rain interception were also higher in association with bamboo. Further studies are required to better understand in this system, the balance between higher superficial water use and increased water retention in lower soil depth, together with more specific studies on soil properties, tree development, and latex yield.
在橡胶种植园中永久引入一种相关作物可以改善生物多样性和土壤覆盖,优化资源利用,并使农民收入多样化。然而,相关作物也可能与橡胶树争夺空间和水等资源。竹橡胶农林复合系统的情况是特殊的,因为竹子具有禾草和树木共同的特征,它们生长迅速,被认为是水的有力竞争对手。通过对泰国南部橡胶林地土壤有机质和含水量、容重、根系分布、冠层盖度和截雨量的研究,了解间作竹对橡胶林地的影响,并与单作进行比较。在橡胶-竹林组合中,土壤含水量在浅层较低,而在较深的层位增加。加竹与不加竹橡胶树细根分布无显著差异;因此,总根密度(橡胶+竹)在该组合中较高。与竹子相关的林冠盖度和截雨量也较高。在这个系统中,需要进一步的研究来更好地理解更高的表面水利用和增加的土壤深层保水之间的平衡,以及对土壤性质、树木发育和乳胶产量进行更具体的研究。
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引用次数: 2
Production and morphological traits of Lophira lanceolata fruits in natural stands 天然林分杉木果实的生产及形态特征
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-07-02 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1791261
Benjamin Lankoandé, A. Ouédraogo, A. Kouyaté, I. Boussim, A. Lykke
ABSTRACT Lophira lanceolata is an important indigenous oil tree species with high socio-economic potential in Africa. This study aimed to assess the fruit production of the species, the impact of infestation on production, and the variability of fruit morphological traits. Thirty mature trees were sampled from each of the two sites in western Burkina Faso. For each tree, all the fruits were collected, counted, dried, and weighed. One hundred fruits were randomly sampled per tree to estimate the infestation rate. 300 fruits collected on 30 trees were sampled to measure their morphological traits. Analysis of variance and regression analyses were performed to test for relationships between fruit production and stem diameter of trees. Results showed that the mean annual fruit production per tree varied significantly among diameter classes, from 0.47 to 8.01 kg dry mass. The infestation rate varied between 3% and 18% of the total fruit production. The prediction model showed a great predictive ability for fruit production (pR2 = 62%) with stem diameter and crown area of trees as explanatory variables. Three shape-groups of fruits were distinguished: spindle-shape (30%), orbicular-shape (19%), and elliptic-shape (51%). Lophira lanceolata has a high fruit production potential with spindle-shaped fruits as the most interesting for exploitation.
杉木(Lophira lanceolata)是非洲重要的本土油树,具有很高的社会经济潜力。本研究旨在评估该树种的果实产量、侵染对产量的影响以及果实形态性状的变异。在布基纳法索西部的两个地点各采集了30棵成熟树木的样本。对于每棵树,所有的果实都被收集、计数、晒干并称重。每棵树随机抽取100个果实来估计侵染率。对30棵果树上采集的300个果实进行了形态特征测定。用方差分析和回归分析检验果实产量与树茎粗之间的关系。结果表明,单株年平均果实产量在干质量0.47 ~ 8.01 kg之间存在显著差异。侵染率占果实总产量的3% ~ 18%。以树的茎粗和树冠面积为解释变量,该预测模型对果实产量有较好的预测能力(pR2 = 62%)。将果实分为纺锤形(30%)、圆形(19%)和椭圆形(51%)三种形状组。杉木果实生产潜力大,梭形果实最具开发价值。
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引用次数: 4
Efficacy of biochar application on seed germination and early growth of forest tree species in semi-evergreen, moist deciduous forest 施用生物炭对半常绿潮湿落叶林中树种种子萌发和早期生长的影响
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-07-02 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1790432
Lina Gogoi, N. Gogoi, B. Borkotoki, R. Kataki
ABSTRACT The effect of forest litter biochar on seed germination and early growth of two tree species (Trewia nudiflora and Lagerstroemia speciosa) was examined in a selected forest area of Nameri National Park, India. All tested biochar applications (from 1 t ha−1 to 6 t ha−1) significantly increased germination percentage, germination index, vigor index, and dry weight of 30 days old seedlings for both species, compared to the control (no biochar). The highest increases were obtained for both species and for all the above variables when biochar was added at the highest rate (6 t ha−1). Results of the seedling growth experiment, with the same biochar applications (from 1 t ha−1 to 6 t ha−1), show that 2 years after planting, all biochar doses had a significant depressing effect on the growth of the two species, except for the highest dose (6 t ha−1) which shows a low but significant increase in growth for both species.
研究了森林凋落物生物炭对印度Nameri国家公园两种树种(Trewia nudiflora和Lagerstroemia speciosa)种子萌发和早期生长的影响。与对照(未施用生物炭)相比,施用生物炭(从1 t ha−1到6 t ha−1)显著提高了两种植物30日龄幼苗的发芽率、萌发指数、活力指数和干重。当生物炭以最高的添加速率(6 t ha - 1)添加时,这两个物种和上述所有变量的增幅都最大。幼苗生长试验结果表明,在相同的生物炭用量(从1 tha−1到6 tha−1)下,种植2年后,除最高剂量(6 tha−1)外,所有生物炭用量对两种树种的生长均有显著抑制作用,最高剂量(6 tha−1)对两种树种的生长均有较低但显著的促进作用。
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引用次数: 2
Livelihood benefits and challenges of community reforestation in Timor Leste: implications for smallholder carbon forestry schemes 东帝汶社区再造林的生计效益和挑战:对小农碳林业计划的影响
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-07-02 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1798817
J. Bond, J. Millar, Jorge Ramos
ABSTRACT This paper describes the emerging livelihood benefits and challenges of community reforestation in Timor-Leste and discusses implications for smallholder carbon forestry schemes. Social research was conducted in an upland area of central Timor Leste with farmers who have been planting trees since 2012 for soil stabilisation, timber, biodiversity enhancement and potential carbon income. A semi-structured survey of 40 tree planting households across six villages was conducted in 2017 to determine the perceived benefits and challenges of reforestation. Additional in-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted in 2018 with 5 village leaders, 8 project farmers and 10 non-project farmers to gain a deeper understanding of some of the issues raised in the survey. Farmers reported that the benefits of tree plantations were income from tree payments from an NGO; investment in children’s education; and improved biodiversity. The challenges to reforestation included livestock damage; lack of water; insects; weeds; and distance to the tree plantations. We conclude that community-based reforestation projects in Timor Leste have the potential to contribute to smallholders’ livelihoods through direct carbon payments and ecosystem services. However, household equity in terms of land ownership, labour, carbon income and social development need to be addressed.
摘要本文介绍了东帝汶社区重新造林带来的新的生计效益和挑战,并讨论了对小农户碳林业计划的影响。在东帝汶中部的一个高地地区进行了社会研究,农民自2012年以来一直在植树,以稳定土壤、木材、增强生物多样性和潜在的碳收入。2017年,对六个村庄的40个植树家庭进行了一项半结构化调查,以确定重新造林的好处和挑战。2018年,对5名村领导、8名项目农民和10名非项目农民进行了进一步深入的定性访谈,以更深入地了解调查中提出的一些问题。农民们报告说,植树造林的好处是从一个非政府组织的树木付款中获得的收入;对儿童教育的投资;以及生物多样性的改善。重新造林面临的挑战包括牲畜损失;缺水;昆虫;杂草;以及到种植园的距离。我们的结论是,东帝汶基于社区的重新造林项目有可能通过直接碳支付和生态系统服务为小农户的生计做出贡献。然而,需要解决土地所有权、劳动力、碳收入和社会发展方面的家庭公平问题。
{"title":"Livelihood benefits and challenges of community reforestation in Timor Leste: implications for smallholder carbon forestry schemes","authors":"J. Bond, J. Millar, Jorge Ramos","doi":"10.1080/14728028.2020.1798817","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2020.1798817","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This paper describes the emerging livelihood benefits and challenges of community reforestation in Timor-Leste and discusses implications for smallholder carbon forestry schemes. Social research was conducted in an upland area of central Timor Leste with farmers who have been planting trees since 2012 for soil stabilisation, timber, biodiversity enhancement and potential carbon income. A semi-structured survey of 40 tree planting households across six villages was conducted in 2017 to determine the perceived benefits and challenges of reforestation. Additional in-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted in 2018 with 5 village leaders, 8 project farmers and 10 non-project farmers to gain a deeper understanding of some of the issues raised in the survey. Farmers reported that the benefits of tree plantations were income from tree payments from an NGO; investment in children’s education; and improved biodiversity. The challenges to reforestation included livestock damage; lack of water; insects; weeds; and distance to the tree plantations. We conclude that community-based reforestation projects in Timor Leste have the potential to contribute to smallholders’ livelihoods through direct carbon payments and ecosystem services. However, household equity in terms of land ownership, labour, carbon income and social development need to be addressed.","PeriodicalId":12422,"journal":{"name":"Forests, Trees and Livelihoods","volume":"29 1","pages":"187 - 204"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/14728028.2020.1798817","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44490965","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 3
The contribution of non-timber forest products to the livelihoods of forest-dependent people: a case study in Hoa Binh province, Vietnam 非木材森林产品对依赖森林的人的生计的贡献:以越南和平省为例
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-05-31 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1770131
H. Le, T. Nguyen
ABSTRACT In Vietnam, most research has addressed important ecological and biological aspects of NTFPs, but research on the relationship between NTFPs and livelihoods of rural households is still limited. This research, therefore, seeks to fill a gap in understanding of the contribution of NTFPs to the livelihoods of forest-dependent people in Vietnam. Structured interviews were held with 100 households in three villages in Truong Son commune, Luong Son district, Hoa Binh Province, Vietnam with different types of household wealth ranking. The indirect opportunity cost (IOC) method was applied to provide an indirect estimate of the economic value of NTFP extraction by households. This research showed that NTFPs contribute moderately to livelihoods of all forest-dependent people in Vietnam, but that NTFPs are a more important livelihood source for poor households than for moderate and rich households. Significant determinants of a household’s dependence on NTFPs are the number of adults, other types of cash income (e.g. off-farm cash income, animal husbandry cash income, other forest activities cash income, pension, and salaries). The research findings suggest several implications for policymakers.
在越南,大多数研究都涉及非森林保护区的重要生态和生物学方面,但关于非森林保护区与农户生计之间关系的研究仍然有限。因此,本研究旨在填补在了解非森林保护区对越南依赖森林的人民生计的贡献方面的空白。对越南和平省龙山区张山公社三个村的100户家庭进行了结构化访谈,并进行了不同类型的家庭财富排名。采用间接机会成本(IOC)方法对家庭开采NTFP的经济价值进行了间接估计。该研究表明,非森林保护区对越南所有依赖森林的人的生计贡献中等,但非森林保护区对贫困家庭的生计来源比对中等和富裕家庭的生计来源更重要。一个家庭依赖非森林保护项目的重要决定因素是成年人数量、其他类型的现金收入(如非农现金收入、畜牧业现金收入、其他森林活动现金收入、养老金和工资)。研究结果对政策制定者提出了几点启示。
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引用次数: 7
Variation of Eugenia uniflora L. fruit quality attributes in the south of the Argentine Gran Chaco 阿根廷大查科南部独叶Eugenia uniflora .果实品质性状的变异
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-04-02 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1759464
D. Castro, V. Rozycki, Juan Diego Cortez Latorre, C. A. Alesso, E. Exner, A. Piagentini, M. Pirovani
ABSTRACT Pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.) is an under-utilized berry in Argentina characterized by high bioactive compound content, sweet flavour, and high antioxidant capacity. The variation of fruit quality attributes of pitanga, as an input for further domestication programs, was evaluated. Pitanga fruits from three different provenances were collected in 2015 in Santa Fe province (Argentina), and their quality attributes for the fresh market and processing were evaluated. Variance component analysis was performed to test intra- and inter-provenance variation on fruit quality. Differences in mean values between provenances were tested by multivariate analysis of variance. About 70% to 82% of the total variance of fruit size was attributed to intra-provenance variability. Also, significant differences between provenances were found in most of the studied quality attributes. When compared to pitangas from Brazilian provenances, the pitangas tested here showed smaller fruit size (−75% fruit weight and −43% diameter), but same proportion of edible portion (≈77%). Pitanga ideotypes for the fresh market should have bigger sized fruits than observed in our research. However, pitanga ideotypes for fruit pulp processing should have a high percentage of edible portion and nutrients regardless of fruit size. Our data thus show that the tested fruits would have a high potential for fruit processing but not for the fresh market. Further research addressing sensory attributes of candidate phenotypes is recommended.
摘要:龙须草(Eugenia uniflora L.)是阿根廷一种利用率较低的浆果,具有高生物活性化合物含量、甜味和高抗氧化能力。评价了火龙果果实品质属性的变化,作为进一步驯化计划的输入。2015年,在阿根廷圣达菲省采集了来自三个不同种源的皮坦加果实,并对其新鲜市场和加工的质量属性进行了评估。采用方差成分分析方法检验种内和种间变异对果实品质的影响。通过多元方差分析检验种源间平均值的差异。果实大小的总变异约有70%至82%归因于种源内变异。此外,所研究的大多数品质属性在种源之间也存在显著差异。与巴西种源的火龙果相比,这里测试的火龙豆果实较小(果实重量为−75%,直径为−43%),但可食用部分的比例相同(≈77%)。新鲜市场上的Pitanga理论家应该有比我们研究中观察到的更大尺寸的水果。然而,无论果实大小,用于果肉加工的火龙果理想型都应具有高比例的可食用部分和营养成分。因此,我们的数据表明,测试的水果在水果加工方面具有很高的潜力,但在新鲜市场上则不然。建议对候选表型的感官属性进行进一步研究。
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引用次数: 4
Bureaucratizing non-government organizations as governmental forest extension services in social forestry policy in Indonesia 印度尼西亚社会林业政策中非政府组织作为政府森林推广服务机构的官僚主义
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-04-02 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1753585
S. Rahayu, D. Laraswati, A. A. Pratama, M. Sahide, D. Permadi, W. Wibowo, T. S. Widyaningsih, E.S.M. Suprapto, W. Andayani, A. Maryudi
ABSTRACT The government of Indonesia is ambitiously planning for more expansion of social forestry with a target of 12.7 million ha of state land to be distributed to local communities through several permit-based social forestry schemes. To deliver the target, the central forest bureaucracy issued a new forest extension policy, which enables non-government organizations (NGOs) to get involved in government extension services. This short commentary analyses aspects related to the coordination and synergies between government agencies and NGOs to achieve their common goals in extension activities. NGOs possess strengths as an agent of community development programs with technical and organizational expertise and experience in mobilizing communities. However, given their contrasted characteristics in terms of organizational settings, goals and objectives, there are challenges facing NGOs when partnering with government institutions. They may face rigid and demanding bureaucratic procedures, and complex coordination.
摘要印度尼西亚政府雄心勃勃地计划进一步扩大社会林业,目标是通过几个基于许可证的社会林业计划,将1270万公顷的国有土地分配给当地社区。为了实现这一目标,中央森林官僚机构发布了一项新的森林推广政策,使非政府组织能够参与政府的推广服务。这篇简短的评论分析了与政府机构和非政府组织之间的协调和协同作用有关的方面,以实现其在推广活动中的共同目标。非政府组织作为社区发展计划的代理人,在动员社区方面具有技术和组织专业知识和经验,具有优势。然而,鉴于非政府组织在组织设置、目标和目的方面的对比特征,非政府组织与政府机构合作时面临挑战。他们可能面临严格而苛刻的官僚程序和复杂的协调。
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引用次数: 14
Partitioning of dry matter and minerals in Kenyan common guava under salt stress: implications for selection of adapted accessions for saline soils 盐胁迫下肯尼亚番石榴干物质和矿物质的分配:对盐碱地适应性材料选择的影响
Q4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Pub Date : 2020-04-02 DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2020.1752312
J. Chiveu, Ute Ubbenjans, K. Kehlenbeck, E. Pawelzik, Marcel Naumann
ABSTRACT Common guava (Psidium guajava L.) is valued for its fruit, which is a source of vitamins, minerals, and natural antioxidants. However, guava production faces salinity challenges globally. Salinity through sodium chloride (NaCl) – 0 mM (control), 10/20 mM (low), 20/40 mM (medium), and 40/80 mM (high) – supplied through a standard Hoagland nutrient solution to 10 genetically diverse guava accessions from Kenya was investigated. Leaf number and dry matter (DM) were significantly reduced at the medium and high salinity levels while root DM remained similar. Root water content increased with rising salinity levels, whereas leaf water content was significantly reduced at the high NaCl level. A decrease in the leaf potassium/sodium (K/Na) and calcium/sodium (Ca/Na) ratios with increasing salinity was observed, possibly due to the high accumulation of Na rather than to the replacement of K and Ca. Leaf phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S) decreased with increasing salinity. Leaf boron (B) and iron (Fe) were significantly reduced only at the high salinity level. Differences among the accessions relative to the accumulation of Na were observed and positively correlated with the DM. Thus, the ability to maintain more DM under salt stress could serve as an indicator for salinity tolerance in Kenyan guava.
摘要普通番石榴(Psidium guajava L.)因其富含维生素、矿物质和天然抗氧化剂的水果而备受推崇。然而,番石榴的生产在全球面临盐度挑战。研究了通过标准Hoagland营养液向来自肯尼亚的10份遗传多样性番石榴材料提供的氯化钠(NaCl)的盐度——0 mM(对照)、10/20 mM(低)、20/40 mM(中)和40/80 mM(高)。在中盐度和高盐度水平下,叶片数量和干物质(DM)显著减少,而根DM保持相似。根含水量随着盐度的升高而增加,而叶片含水量在高NaCl水平下显著降低。观察到叶片钾/钠(K/Na)和钙/钠(Ca/Na)比率随着盐度的增加而降低,这可能是由于Na的高积累,而不是由于K和Ca的替代。叶片磷(P)和硫(S)随着盐度的升高而降低。叶片硼(B)和铁(Fe)仅在高盐度水平下显著降低。观察到不同材料在Na积累方面的差异,并与DM呈正相关。因此,在盐胁迫下保持更多DM的能力可以作为肯尼亚番石榴耐盐性的指标。
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引用次数: 0
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