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The Information Gathering Framework - a Cognitive Model of Regressive Eye Movements during Reading. 信息收集框架——阅读过程中退行性眼动的认知模型。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-07-31 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.4.4
Anna Fiona Weiss

In this article we present a new eye movement control framework that describes the interaction between fixation durations and regressive saccades during reading: The Information Gathering Framework (IGF). Based on the FC model proposed by Bicknell and Levy [15], the basic idea of the IGF is that a confidence level for each word is computed while being monitored by three independent thresholds. These thresholds shape eye movement behavior by increasing fixation duration, triggering a regression, or guiding regression target selection. In this way, the IGF does not only account for regressive eye movements but also provides a framework able to model eye movement control during reading across different scenarios. Importantly, within the IGF it is assumed that two different types of regressive eye movements exist which differ with regard to their releases (integrations difficulties vs. missing evidence) but also with regard to their time course. We tested the predictions of the IGF by re-analyzing an experiment of Weiss et al. [57] and found, inter alia, clear evidence for shorter fixation durations before regressive saccades relative to progressive saccades, with the exception of the last region. This clearly supports the assumptions of the IGF. In addition, we found evidence that there exists a window of about 15-20 characters to the left of the current fixation that plays an important role in target selection, probably indicating the perceptual span during a regressive saccade.

在这篇文章中,我们提出了一个新的眼动控制框架,描述了阅读过程中注视持续时间和后退扫视之间的相互作用:信息收集框架(IGF)。IGF基于Bicknell和Levy[15]提出的FC模型,其基本思想是计算每个单词的置信水平,同时由三个独立的阈值监控。这些阈值通过增加注视时间、触发回归或指导回归目标选择来塑造眼动行为。通过这种方式,IGF不仅解释了眼球运动的退行性,而且还提供了一个能够在不同场景下模拟阅读过程中眼球运动控制的框架。重要的是,在IGF中,假设存在两种不同类型的退行性眼动,它们的释放(整合困难与缺失证据)不同,而且它们的时间过程也不同。我们通过重新分析Weiss等人的实验对IGF的预测进行了检验,发现除了最后一个区域外,有明确的证据表明,相对于进行性扫视,退行性扫视前的注视时间更短。这显然支持了IGF的假设。此外,我们发现有证据表明,在当前注视的左侧存在一个大约15-20个字符的窗口,在目标选择中起着重要作用,可能表明在退行性扫视期间的感知广度。
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引用次数: 2
Two hours in Hollywood: A manually annotated ground truth data set of eye movements during movie clip watching. 好莱坞两小时:观看电影片段时眼球运动的手动注释地面真相数据集。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-07-27 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.4.5
Ioannis Agtzidis, Mikhail Startsev, Michael Dorr

In this short article we present our manual annotation of the eye movement events in a subset of the large-scale eye tracking data set Hollywood2. Our labels include fixations, saccades, and smooth pursuits, as well as a noise event type (the latter representing either blinks, loss of tracking, or physically implausible signals). In order to achieve more consistent annotations, the gaze samples were labelled by a novice rater based on rudimentary algorithmic suggestions, and subsequently corrected by an expert rater. Overall, we annotated eye movement events in the recordings corresponding to 50 randomly selected test set clips and 6 training set clips from Hollywood2, which were viewed by 16 observers and amount to a total of approximately 130 minutes of gaze data. In these labels, 62.4% of the samples were attributed to fixations, 9.1% - to saccades, and, notably, 24.2% - to pursuit (the remainder marked as noise). After evaluation of 15 published eye movement classification algorithms on our newly collected annotated data set, we found that the most recent algorithms perform very well on average, and even reach human-level labelling quality for fixations and saccades, but all have a much larger room for improvement when it comes to smooth pursuit classification. The data set is made available at https://gin.g-node.org/ioannis.agtzidis/hollywood2_em.

在这篇短文中,我们展示了我们对大规模眼动追踪数据集Hollywood2的一个子集的眼动事件的手工注释。我们的标签包括注视、扫视和平滑追求,以及噪声事件类型(后者代表眨眼、跟踪丢失或物理上不可信的信号)。为了获得更一致的注释,注视样本由新手评分员根据基本算法建议进行标记,随后由专家评分员进行校正。总的来说,我们在来自好莱坞的50个随机选择的测试集片段和6个训练集片段对应的记录中注释了眼动事件,这些记录由16名观察者观看,总计约130分钟的凝视数据。在这些标签中,62.4%的样本归为注视,9.1%归为扫视,值得注意的是,24.2%归为追求(其余标记为噪声)。在对我们新收集的注释数据集上发表的15种眼动分类算法进行评估后,我们发现,最新的算法平均表现非常好,甚至在注视和扫视方面达到了人类水平的标记质量,但在平滑追求分类方面,所有算法都有更大的改进空间。该数据集可在https://gin.g-node.org/ioannis.agtzidis/hollywood2_em上获得。
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引用次数: 6
To look or not to look: Subliminal abruptonset cues influence constrained free-choice saccades. 看还是不看:下意识的突发提示影响受限的自由选择扫视。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-07-20 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.4.2
Seema Prasad, Ramesh Mishra

Subliminal cues have been shown to capture attention and modulate manual response behaviour but their impact on eye movement behaviour is not well-studied. In two experiments, we examined if subliminal cues influence constrained free-choice saccades and if this influence is under strategic control as a function of task-relevancy of the cues. On each trial, a display containing four filled circles at the centre of each quadrant was shown. A central coloured circle indicated the relevant visual field on each trial (Up or Down in Experiment 1; Left or Right in Experiment 2). Next, abrupt-onset cues were presented for 16 ms at one of the four locations. Participants were then asked to freely choose and make a saccade to one of the two target circles in the relevant visual field. The analysis of the frequency of saccades, saccade endpoint deviation and saccade latency revealed a significant influence of the relevant subliminal cues on saccadic decisions. Latency data showed reduced capture by spatiallyirrelevant cues under some conditions. These results indicate that spatial attentional control settings as defined in our study could modulate the influence of subliminal abrupt-onset cues on eye movement behaviour. We situate the findings of this study in the attention-capture debate and discuss the implications for the subliminal cueing literature.

阈下提示已被证明可以捕获注意力并调节手动反应行为,但它们对眼球运动行为的影响尚未得到充分研究。在两个实验中,我们考察了阈下线索是否影响受限自由选择扫视,以及这种影响是否受线索任务相关性的策略控制。在每次试验中,在每个象限的中心显示包含四个填充的圆圈。中心彩色圆圈表示每次试验的相关视野(实验1为向上或向下;接下来,在四个位置中的一个位置呈现16 ms的突然提示。然后,参与者被要求在相关视野内的两个目标圆中自由选择并进行扫视。通过对扫视频率、扫视终点偏差和扫视潜伏期的分析,发现相关的阈下提示对扫视决策有显著影响。延迟数据显示,在某些条件下,空间无关线索的捕获减少了。这些结果表明,本研究定义的空间注意控制设置可以调节阈下突发性线索对眼球运动行为的影响。我们将本研究的发现置于注意力捕获辩论中,并讨论了阈下提示文献的含义。
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引用次数: 1
Microsaccades during high speed continuous visual search. 高速连续视觉搜索时的微注视。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-06-28 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.5.4
Jacob G Martin, Charles E Davis, Maximilian Riesenhuber, Simon J Thorpe

Here, we provide an analysis of the microsaccades that occurred during continuous visual search and targeting of small faces that we pasted either into cluttered background photos or into a simple gray background. Subjects continuously used their eyes to target singular 3-degree upright or inverted faces in changing scenes. As soon as the participant's gaze reached the target face, a new face was displayed in a different and random location. Regardless of the experimental context (e.g. background scene, no background scene), or target eccentricity (from 4 to 20 degrees of visual angle), we found that the microsaccade rate dropped to near zero levels within only 12 milliseconds after stimulus onset. There were almost never any microsaccades after stimulus onset and before the first saccade to the face. One subject completed 118 consecutive trials without a single microsaccade. However, in about 20% of the trials, there was a single microsaccade that occurred almost immediately after the preceding saccade's offset. These microsaccades were task oriented because their facial landmark targeting distributions matched those of saccades within both the upright and inverted face conditions. Our findings show that a single feedforward pass through the visual hierarchy for each stimulus is likely all that is needed to effectuate prolonged continuous visual search. In addition, we provide evidence that microsaccades can serve perceptual functions like correcting saccades or effectuating task-oriented goals during continuous visual search.

在这里,我们分析了在连续视觉搜索和瞄准小人脸时发生的微注视,这些小人脸被粘贴在杂乱的背景照片或简单的灰色背景中。受试者在不断变化的场景中持续用眼睛瞄准3度直立或倒立的单个人脸。只要被试的视线到达目标人脸,就会在不同的随机位置显示一张新的人脸。无论实验情境(如背景场景、无背景场景)或目标偏心率(视角从 4 度到 20 度)如何,我们都发现,在刺激开始后仅 12 毫秒内,微回旋率就下降到接近于零的水平。在刺激开始后到第一次向面部做出囊回之前,几乎从未出现过任何微回旋。一名受试者在连续完成 118 次试验后,没有出现任何微小回旋。然而,在大约 20% 的试验中,有一次微小回旋几乎是在前一个囊回偏移之后立即发生的。这些微小回旋具有任务导向性,因为它们的面部地标目标分布与直立和倒置面部条件下的囊回旋相匹配。我们的研究结果表明,对每一个刺激进行一次视觉层次结构的前馈传递很可能就是实现长时间连续视觉搜索所需的全部条件。此外,我们还提供了证据,证明微小回旋可以在连续视觉搜索过程中发挥感知功能,如纠正囊回旋或实现任务导向目标。
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引用次数: 0
The Display Makes a Difference: A Mobile Eye Tracking Study on the Perception of Art Before and After a Museum's Rearrangement. 陈列与众不同:关于博物馆重新布置前后艺术品感知的移动眼动追踪研究。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-06-19 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.2.6
Luise Reitstätter, Hanna Brinkmann, Thiago Santini, Eva Specker, Zoya Dare, Flora Bakondi, Anna Miscená, Enkelejda Kasneci, Helmut Leder, Raphael Rosenberg

There is increasing awareness that the perception of art is affected by the way it is presented. In 2018, the Austrian Gallery Belvedere redisplayed its permanent collection. Our multidisciplinary team seized this opportunity to investigate the viewing behavior of specific artworks both before and after the museum's rearrangement. In contrast to previous mobile eye tracking (MET) studies in museums, this study benefits from the comparison of two realistic display conditions (without any research interference), an unconstrained study design (working with regular museum visitors), and a large data sample (comprising 259 participants). We employed a mixed-method approach that combined mobile eye tracking, subjective mapping (a drawing task in conjunction with an open interview), and a questionnaire in order to relate gaze patterns to processes of meaning-making. Our results show that the new display made a difference in that it 1) generally increased the viewing times of the artworks; 2) clearly extended the reading times of labels; and 3) deepened visitors' engagement with the artworks in their exhibition reflections. In contrast, interest in specific artworks and art form preferences proved to be robust and independent of presentation modes.

越来越多的人意识到,对艺术的认知会受到其展示方式的影响。2018 年,奥地利 Belvedere 美术馆重新展示了其永久藏品。我们的多学科团队抓住这一机会,调查了博物馆重新布置前后特定艺术品的观赏行为。与以往在博物馆进行的移动眼动仪(MET)研究相比,本研究得益于两种真实展示条件的比较(没有任何研究干扰)、不受约束的研究设计(与博物馆的普通参观者合作)以及大量的数据样本(包括 259 名参与者)。我们采用了一种混合方法,将移动眼动跟踪、主观绘图(绘画任务与开放式访谈相结合)和问卷调查结合起来,以便将注视模式与意义生成过程联系起来。我们的研究结果表明,新的展示方式在以下方面发挥了作用:1)普遍延长了艺术品的观看时间;2)明显延长了标签的阅读时间;3)加深了参观者在展览反思中对艺术品的参与。相比之下,对特定艺术品的兴趣和艺术形式的偏好被证明是稳定的,与展示模式无关。
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引用次数: 0
A Quantitative Analysis of the Taxonomy of Artistic Styles. 艺术风格分类的定量分析。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-06-09 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.2.5
Viviane Clay, Johannes Schrumpf, Yannick Tessenow, Helmut Leder, Ulrich Ansorge, Peter König

Classifying artists and their work as distinct art styles has been an important task of scholars in the field of art history. Due to its subjectivity, scholars often contradict one another. Our project investigated differences in aesthetic qualities of seven art styles through quantitative means. This was achieved with state-of-the-art deep-learning paradigms to generate new images resembling the style of an artist or entire era. We conducted psychological experiments to measure the behavior of subjects when viewing these new art images. Two different experiments were used: In an eye-tracking study, subjects viewed art-stylespecific generated images. Eye movements were recorded and then compared between art styles. In a visual singleton search study, subjects had to locate a style-outlier image among three images of an alternative style. Reaction time and accuracy were measured and analyzed. These experiments show that there are measurable differences in behavior when viewing images of varying art styles. From these differences, we constructed hierarchical clusterings relating art styles based on the different behaviors of subjects viewing the samples. Our study reveals a novel perspective on the classification of artworks into stylistic eras and motivates future research in the domain of empirical aesthetics through quantitative means.

将艺术家及其作品划分为不同的艺术风格一直是艺术史学者的重要任务。由于其主观性,学者之间往往存在矛盾。我们的项目通过量化的手段调查了七种艺术风格的审美品质差异。这是通过最先进的深度学习范式来实现的,以生成类似于艺术家或整个时代风格的新图像。我们进行了心理实验来测量受试者在观看这些新的艺术图像时的行为。研究人员使用了两个不同的实验:在眼球追踪研究中,受试者观看特定艺术风格的生成图像。眼球运动被记录下来,然后在不同的艺术风格之间进行比较。在一项视觉单一搜索研究中,受试者必须在三幅不同风格的图像中找到一张风格异常的图像。测定并分析了反应时间和准确度。这些实验表明,在观看不同艺术风格的图像时,行为上存在可测量的差异。根据这些差异,我们根据观看样本的受试者的不同行为构建了与艺术风格相关的分层聚类。我们的研究揭示了艺术作品的风格时代分类的新视角,并通过定量手段激发了实证美学领域的未来研究。
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引用次数: 2
Looking at Buswell's pictures. 看布斯韦尔的照片
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-06-02 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.2.4
Nicholas J Wade

In 1935 Guy Buswell, an educational psychologist at Chicago University, published How People Look at Pictures. In it he recorded photographically the eye movements of 200 observers when looking at a wide variety of pictures. He analysed the overall distribution of fixations on pictures, compared the first few fixations on a picture to the last few, measured the durations of fixations made early in viewing and those made near the end of viewing, examined how fixation duration changed with viewing time, recorded the consistency between different observers when viewing the same picture and he looked at the influence of instructions given to observers upon their eye movements when viewing a picture. He commented on the substantial differences between individuals and noted that instructions had a dramatic effect on the pattern of eye movements. Buswell's analysis was graphical rather than statistical. In this article Buswell's figures are recombined and his research is placed in the context of earlier investigations of eye movements with pictures by Stratton and Judd and later ones by Yarbus.

1935 年,芝加哥大学的教育心理学家盖伊-布斯韦尔出版了《人们如何看图》一书。在这本书中,他用照片记录了 200 名观察者观看各种图片时的眼球运动。他分析了观察者看图片时定睛的总体分布情况,比较了观察者看图片时前几个定睛和后几个定睛的情况,测量了观察者在看图片初期和临近结束时的定睛持续时间,研究了定睛持续时间随观察时间的变化情况,记录了不同观察者在看同一幅图片时的一致性,并研究了观察者在看图片时所接受的指令对其眼球运动的影响。他对个体之间的巨大差异进行了评论,并指出指令对眼球运动模式有显著影响。布斯韦尔的分析是图形分析而非统计分析。本文重新整理了布斯韦尔的数据,并将他的研究与斯特拉顿和贾德以及后来的雅布斯对图片眼动的研究结合起来。
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引用次数: 0
Fluctuation in Pupil Size and Spontaneous Blinks Reflect Story Transportation. 瞳孔大小和自发眨眼的波动反映了故事的传播。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-06-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.3.6
Johanna K Kaakinen, Jaana Simola

Thirty-nine participants listened to 28 neutral and horror excerpts of Stephen King short stories while constantly tracking their emotional arousal. Pupil size was measured with an Eyelink 1000+, and participants rated valence and transportation after each story. In addition to computing mean pupil size across 1-sec intervals, we extracted blink count and used detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) to obtain the scaling exponents of long-range temporal correlations (LRTCs) in pupil size time-series. Pupil size was expected to be sensitive also to emotional arousal, whereas blink count and LRTC's were expected to reflect cognitive engagement. The results showed that self-reported arousal increased, pupil size was overall greater, and the decreasing slope of pupil size was flatter for horror than for neutral stories. Horror stories induced higher transportation than neutral stories. High transportation was associated with a steeper increase in self-reported arousal across time, stronger LRTCs in pupil size fluctuations, and lower blink count. These results indicate that pupil size reflects emotional arousal induced by the text content, while LRTCs and blink count are sensitive to cognitive engagement associated with transportation, irrespective of the text type. The study demonstrates the utility of pupillometric measures and blink count to study literature reception.

39 名参与者聆听了斯蒂芬-金的 28 篇中性和恐怖短篇小说节选,同时不断跟踪他们的情绪唤醒情况。我们使用 Eyelink 1000+ 测量瞳孔大小,并在每个故事结束后对情绪和交通状况进行评分。除了计算1秒间隔内的平均瞳孔大小外,我们还提取了眨眼次数,并使用去趋势波动分析(DFA)获得了瞳孔大小时间序列中长程时间相关性(LRTC)的缩放指数。预计瞳孔大小对情绪唤醒也很敏感,而眨眼次数和长程时间相关性则反映认知参与。结果显示,自我报告的唤醒程度增加,瞳孔总体变大,恐怖故事比中性故事的瞳孔缩小斜率更平缓。与中性故事相比,恐怖故事诱发的移情作用更大。高迁移率与自我报告的唤醒程度随时间陡增、瞳孔大小波动的 LRTC 更强以及眨眼次数更少有关。这些结果表明,瞳孔大小反映了文本内容引起的情绪唤醒,而 LRTCs 和眨眼次数则对与交通相关的认知参与敏感,与文本类型无关。这项研究证明了瞳孔测量和眨眼次数在研究文学接受方面的实用性。
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引用次数: 0
Pursuit eye movements in dyslexic children: evidence for an immaturity of brain oculomotor structures? 阅读困难儿童的眼球运动:大脑动眼肌结构不成熟的证据?
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-05-25 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.1.5
Simona Caldani, Christophe-Loïc Gerard, Hugo Peyre, Maria Pia Bucci

Background: Dyslexia is a disorder found in 5-10% of school-aged children. Several studies reported visual deficits and oculomotor abnormalities in dyslexic children. The objective of our study was to examine horizontal pursuit performance in dyslexic children, despite its poor involvement in reading. Methods: Eye movements were recorded by video-oculography in 92 children (46 dyslexic children, mean age: 9.77 ± 0.26 and 46 non dyslexic, IQ- and age-matched children). Both the number of catch-up saccades occurring during pursuit task and the gain of pursuit were measured. Results: Catch-up saccades were significantly more frequent in the dyslexic group than in the non-dyslexic group of children. Pursuit performance (in terms of the number of catch-up saccades and gain) significantly improved with increasing age in the non-dyslexic children group only. Conclusions: The atypical pursuit patterns observed in dyslexic children suggest a deficiency in the visual attentional processing and an immaturity of brain structures responsible for pursuit triggering. This finding needs to be validated by neuroimaging studies on dyslexia population.

背景:阅读障碍在5-10%的学龄儿童中发现。一些研究报道了阅读困难儿童的视觉缺陷和动眼肌异常。我们研究的目的是检查阅读困难儿童的水平追求表现,尽管他们在阅读方面的参与度很低。方法:对92例儿童进行眼动视频记录,其中46例为阅读困难儿童,平均年龄为9.77±0.26岁;46例为非阅读困难儿童,智商和年龄匹配。测量了被试在追逐任务中出现的追赶扫视次数和追逐的增益。结果:诵读困难组的追赶扫视频率明显高于非诵读困难组。在非阅读障碍儿童组中,随着年龄的增长,追求表现(追赶扫视的次数和增益)显著提高。结论:在阅读困难儿童中观察到的非典型追求模式表明视觉注意加工的缺陷和负责追求触发的大脑结构的不成熟。这一发现需要通过对阅读障碍人群的神经影像学研究来验证。
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引用次数: 6
Pupillary and Microsaccadic Responses to Cognitive Effort and Emotional Arousal During Complex Decision Making. 复杂决策过程中瞳孔和微弛豫对认知努力和情绪唤醒的反应
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2020-05-17 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.5.2
Krzysztof Krejtz, Justyna Żurawska, Andrew T Duchowski, Szymon Wichary

A large body of literature documents the sensitivity of pupil response to cognitive load (1)and emotional arousal (2). Recent empirical evidence also showed that microsaccade characteristics and dynamics can be modulated by mental fatigue and cognitive load (3). Very little is known about the sensitivity of microsaccadic characteristics to emotional arousal. The present paper demonstrates in a controlled experiment pupillary and microsaccadic responses to information processing during multi-attribute decision making under affective priming. Twenty-one psychology students were randomly assigned into three affective priming conditions (neutral, aversive, and erotic). Participants were tasked to make several discriminative decisions based on acquired cues. In line with the expectations, results showed microsaccadic rate inhibition and pupillary dilation depending on cognitive effort (number of acquired cues) prior to decision. These effects were moderated by affective priming. Aversivepriming strengthened pupillary and microsaccadic response to information processing effort.In general, results suggest that pupillary response is more biased by affective priming than microsaccadic rate. The results are discussed in the light of neuropsychological mechanisms of pupillary and microsaccadic behavior generation.

大量文献记载了瞳孔反应对认知负荷(1)和情绪唤醒(2)的敏感性。最近的经验证据还表明,微动作的特征和动态可受精神疲劳和认知负荷的调节(3)。关于微停顿特征对情绪唤醒的敏感性,目前所知甚少。本文通过一项对照实验证明了在情感引物作用下,多属性决策过程中瞳孔和微注视对信息处理的反应。21 名心理学学生被随机分配到三种情绪引物条件下(中性、厌恶和色情)。受试者的任务是根据获得的线索做出几项辨别决策。结果与预期一致,显示出微弛豫率抑制和瞳孔放大取决于做出决定前的认知努力(获得的线索数量)。这些影响受到情感引物的调节。总体而言,研究结果表明,瞳孔反应受情感引物的影响比微弛豫率更大。本研究根据瞳孔和微弛豫行为产生的神经心理学机制对结果进行了讨论。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of Eye Movement Research
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