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Flipping the world upside down: Using eye tracking in virtual reality to study visual search in inverted scenes. 颠倒世界:利用虚拟现实中的眼动追踪技术研究倒置场景中的视觉搜索。
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-03-31 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.3.5
Julia Beitner, Jason Helbing, Dejan Draschkow, Erwan J David, Melissa L-H Võ

Image inversion is a powerful tool for investigating cognitive mechanisms of visual perception. However, studies have mainly used inversion in paradigms presented on twodimensional computer screens. It remains open whether disruptive effects of inversion also hold true in more naturalistic scenarios. In our study, we used scene inversion in virtual reality in combination with eye tracking to investigate the mechanisms of repeated visual search through three-dimensional immersive indoor scenes. Scene inversion affected all gaze and head measures except fixation durations and saccade amplitudes. Our behavioral results, surprisingly, did not entirely follow as hypothesized: While search efficiency dropped significantly in inverted scenes, participants did not utilize more memory as measured by search time slopes. This indicates that despite the disruption, participants did not try to compensate the increased difficulty by using more memory. Our study highlights the importance of investigating classical experimental paradigms in more naturalistic scenarios to advance research on daily human behavior.

图像反转是研究视觉感知认知机制的有力工具。然而,研究主要是在二维计算机屏幕上呈现的范例中使用反转。反转的破坏性效果是否也适用于更自然的场景,这仍然是一个未知数。在我们的研究中,我们利用虚拟现实中的场景反转与眼动跟踪相结合的方法,研究了在三维沉浸式室内场景中重复视觉搜索的机制。除了固定持续时间和囊状移动幅度外,场景反转影响了所有凝视和头部测量。令人惊讶的是,我们的行为结果并不完全符合假设:虽然在倒置场景中搜索效率明显下降,但根据搜索时间斜率的测量,参与者并没有利用更多的记忆。这表明,尽管出现了干扰,但参与者并没有试图通过使用更多记忆来补偿增加的难度。我们的研究强调了在更自然的场景中研究经典实验范式对于推动人类日常行为研究的重要性。
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引用次数: 0
The effects of task difficulty on gaze behaviour during landing with visual flight rules in low-time pilots. 任务难度对低时间飞行员视觉飞行规则着陆时凝视行为的影响
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-03-20 eCollection Date: 2023-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.16.1.3
Naila Ayala, Abdullah Zafar, Suzanne Kearns, Elizabeth Irving, Shi Cao, Ewa Niechwiej-Szwedo

Eye movements have been used to examine the cognitive function of pilots and understand how information processing abilities impact performance. Traditional and advanced measures of gaze behaviour effectively reflect changes in cognitive load, situational awareness, and expert-novice differences. However, the extent to which gaze behaviour changes during the early stages of skill development has yet to be addressed. The current study investigated the impact of task difficulty on gaze behaviour in low-time pilots (N=18) while they completed simulated landing scenarios. An increase in task difficulty resulted in longer fixation of the runway, and a reduction in the stationary gaze entropy (gaze dispersion) and gaze transition entropy (sequence complexity). These findings suggest that pilots' gaze became less complex and more focused on fewer areas of interest when task difficulty increased. Additionally, a novel approach to identify and track instances when pilots restrict their attention outside the cockpit (i.e., gaze tunneling) was explored and shown to be sensitive to changes in task difficulty. Altogether, the gaze-related metrics used in the present study provide valuable information for assessing pilots gaze behaviour and help further understand how gaze contributes to better performance in low-time pilots.

眼球运动已被用来检查飞行员的认知功能,并了解信息处理能力如何影响表现。传统和先进的凝视行为测量方法有效地反映了认知负荷、情境意识和专家-新手差异的变化。然而,凝视行为在技能发展的早期阶段改变的程度尚未得到解决。目前的研究调查了任务难度对低时间飞行员(N=18)在完成模拟着陆场景时注视行为的影响。任务难度的增加导致跑道注视时间的延长,静止注视熵(注视分散)和注视转移熵(注视序列复杂性)的降低。这些发现表明,当任务难度增加时,飞行员的目光变得不那么复杂,更专注于更少的感兴趣的领域。此外,研究人员还探索了一种识别和跟踪飞行员将注意力限制在驾驶舱外(即凝视隧道)的新方法,并证明该方法对任务难度的变化很敏感。总之,本研究中使用的凝视相关指标为评估飞行员的凝视行为提供了有价值的信息,并有助于进一步了解凝视如何有助于低时间飞行员的更好表现。
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引用次数: 0
Mobile eye tracking applied as a tool for customer experience research in a crowded train station. 移动眼动追踪作为一种工具在拥挤的火车站进行客户体验研究。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-01-16 eCollection Date: 2023-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.16.1.1
Andrea Schneider, Beat Vollenwyder, Eva Krueger, Céline Mühlethaler, Dave B Miller, Jasmin Thurau, Achim Elfering
Train stations have increasingly become crowded, necessitating stringent requirements in the design of stations and commuter navigation through these stations. In this study, we explored the use of mobile eye tracking in combination with observation and a survey to gain knowledge on customer experience in a crowded train station. We investigated the utilization of mobile eye tracking in ascertaining customers’ perception of the train station environment and analyzed the effect of a signalization prototype (visual pedestrian flow cues), which was intended for regulating pedestrian flow in a crowded underground passage. Gaze behavior, estimated crowd density, and comfort levels (an individual’s comfort level in a certain situation), were measured before and after the implementation of the prototype. The results revealed that the prototype was visible in conditions of low crowd density. However, in conditions of high crowd density, the prototype was less visible, and the path choice was influenced by other commuters. Hence, herd behavior appeared to have a stronger effect than the implemented signalization prototype in conditions of high crowd density. Thus, mobile eye tracking in combination with observation and the survey successfully aided in understanding customers’ perception of the train station environment on a qualitative level and supported the evaluation of the signalization prototype the crowded underground passage. However, the analysis process was laborious, which could be an obstacle for its practical use in gaining customer insights.
火车站变得越来越拥挤,对车站的设计和通过这些车站的通勤导航提出了严格的要求。在这项研究中,我们探索了移动眼动追踪与观察和调查相结合的方法,以获得有关拥挤火车站客户体验的知识。我们研究了移动眼动追踪在确定客户对火车站环境的感知方面的应用,并分析了信号原型(视觉行人流量提示)的效果,该原型旨在调节拥挤的地下通道中的行人流量。在原型实施前后测量凝视行为、估计的人群密度和舒适度(个人在特定情况下的舒适度)。结果表明,原型在低人群密度的条件下是可见的。然而,在人群密度高的情况下,原型不太显眼,路径选择受到其他通勤者的影响。因此,在高人群密度的条件下,群体行为似乎比实施的信号原型具有更强的影响。因此,移动眼动追踪与观察和调查相结合,成功地帮助从定性的层面了解了客户对火车站环境的感知,并支持了对信号控制原型拥挤地下通道的评估。然而,分析过程很费力,这可能会阻碍其在获得客户见解方面的实际应用。
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引用次数: 1
Assessment of cognitive biases in Augmented Reality: Beyond eye tracking. 评估增强现实技术中的认知偏差:超越眼动追踪
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-12-30 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.3.4
Piotr Słowiński, Ben Grindley, Helen Muncie, David J Harris, Samuel J Vine, Mark R Wilson

We study an individual's propensity for rational thinking; the avoidance of cognitive biases (unconscious errors generated by our mental simplification methods) using a novel augmented reality (AR) platform. Specifically, we developed an odd-one-out (OOO) game-like task in AR designed to try to induce and assess confirmatory biases. Forty students completed the AR task in the laboratory, and the short form of the comprehensive assessment of rational thinking (CART) online via the Qualtrics platform. We demonstrate that behavioural markers (based on eye, hand and head movements) can be associated (linear regression) with the short CART score - more rational thinkers have slower head and hand movements and faster gaze movements in the second more ambiguous round of the OOO task. Furthermore, short CART scores can be associated with the change in behaviour between two rounds of the OOO task (one less and one more ambiguous) - hand-eye-head coordination patterns of the more rational thinkers are more consistent in the two rounds. Overall, we demonstrate the benefits of augmenting eye-tracking recordings with additional data modalities when trying to understand complicated behaviours.

我们利用新颖的增强现实(AR)平台来研究个体的理性思维倾向;避免认知偏差(由我们的心理简化方法产生的无意识错误)。具体来说,我们在 AR 中开发了一个类似于奇数淘汰(OOO)游戏的任务,旨在尝试诱导和评估确认性偏差。40 名学生在实验室完成了 AR 任务,并通过 Qualtrics 平台在线完成了理性思维综合评估 (CART) 的简表。我们证明,行为标记(基于眼、手和头部运动)可以与简表 CART 分数相关联(线性回归)--在第二轮模棱两可的 OOO 任务中,理性思维更强的人头部和手部运动更慢,目光运动更快。此外,短 CART 分数还与两轮 OOO 任务(一轮模糊性较低,一轮模糊性较高)之间的行为变化有关--理性思维较强的人在两轮任务中的手眼头协调模式更加一致。总之,我们证明了在试图理解复杂行为时,使用其他数据模式来增强眼动跟踪记录的益处。
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引用次数: 0
Using Natural Head Movements to Continually Calibrate EOG Signals. 使用自然头部运动持续校准EOG信号。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-12-30 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.5.6
Jason R Nezvadovitz, Hrishikesh M Rao

Electrooculography (EOG) is the measurement of eye movements using surface electrodes adhered around the eye. EOG systems can be designed to have an unobtrusive form-factor that is ideal for eye tracking in free-living over long durations, but the relationship between voltage and gaze direction requires frequent re-calibration as the skin-electrode impedance and retinal adaptation vary over time. Here we propose a method for automatically calibrating the EOG-gaze relationship by fusing EOG signals with gyroscopic measurements of head movement whenever the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) is active. The fusion is executed as recursive inference on a hidden Markov model that accounts for all rotational degrees-of-freedom and uncertainties simultaneously. This enables continual calibration using natural eye and head movements while minimizing the impact of sensor noise. No external devices like monitors or cameras are needed. On average, our method's gaze estimates deviate by 3.54° from those of an industry-standard desktop video-based eye tracker. Such discrepancy is on par with the latest mobile video eye trackers. Future work is focused on automatically detecting moments of VOR in free-living.

眼电图(EOG)是使用附着在眼睛周围的表面电极来测量眼睛的运动。EOG系统可以设计为具有不引人注目的形状因子,这对于长时间自由生活中的眼睛跟踪来说是理想的,但电压和凝视方向之间的关系需要频繁的重新校准,因为皮肤电极阻抗和视网膜适应随时间变化。在这里,我们提出了一种方法,通过在前庭-眼反射(VOR)激活时将EOG信号与头部运动的陀螺仪测量融合,自动校准EOG凝视关系。融合作为隐马尔可夫模型的递归推理执行,隐马尔可夫模型同时考虑所有旋转自由度和不确定性。这使得能够使用自然的眼睛和头部运动进行连续校准,同时最大限度地减少传感器噪声的影响。不需要像监视器或摄像机这样的外部设备。平均而言,我们的方法的凝视估计与基于行业标准桌面视频的眼动仪的凝视估计偏差3.54°。这种差异与最新的移动视频眼动仪不相上下。未来的工作重点是自动检测自由生活中的VOR时刻。
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引用次数: 0
The Mechanism of Word Satiation in Tibetan Reading: Evidence from Eye Movements. 藏语文阅读中的词语讽刺机制——来自眼动的证据。
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-11-01 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.5.3
Xuling Li, Man Zeng, Lei Gao, Shan Li, Zibei Niu, Danhui Wang, Tianzhi Li, Xuejun Bai, Xiaolei Gao

Two eye-tracking experiments were used to investigate the mechanism of word satiation in Tibetan reading. The results revealed that, at a low repetition level, gaze duration and total fixation duration in the semantically unrelated condition were significantly longer than in the semantically related condition; at a medium repetition level, reaction time in the semantically related condition was significantly longer than in the semantically unrelated condition; at a high repetition level, the total fixation duration and reaction time in the semantically related condition were significantly longer than in the semantically unrelated condition. However, fixation duration and reaction time showed no significant difference between the similar and dissimilar orthography at any repetition level. These findings imply that there are semantic priming effects in Tibetan reading at a low repetition level, but semantic satiation effects at greater repetition levels, which occur in the late stage of lexical processing.

采用两个眼动追踪实验研究了藏语阅读中单词饱腹感的产生机制。结果表明,在低重复水平下,语义无关条件下的注视持续时间和总注视持续时间显著长于语义相关条件下的凝视持续时间和全注视持续时间;在中等重复水平上,语义相关条件下的反应时间明显长于语义无关条件下的;在高重复水平下,语义相关条件下的总注视持续时间和反应时间显著长于语义无关条件下的。然而,在任何重复水平上,相似和不同的正写法之间的固定时间和反应时间都没有显著差异。这些发现表明,藏语阅读在低重复水平上存在语义启动效应,而在高重复水平上则存在语义满足效应,这些效应发生在词汇加工的后期。
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引用次数: 0
Eye Movements during Reading and their Relationship to Reading Assessment Outcomes in Swedish Elementary School Children. 瑞典小学生阅读时的眼动及其与阅读评估结果的关系。
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-10-13 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.4.3
Andrea Strandberg, Mattias Nilsson, Per Östberg, Gustaf Öqvist Seimyr

The characteristics of children's eye movements during reading change as they gradually become better readers. However, few eye tracking studies have investigated children's reading and reading development and little is known about the relationship between reading- related eye movement measures and reading assessment outcomes. We recorded and analyzed three basic eye movement measures in an ecologically valid eye-tracking set-up. The participants were Swedish children (n = 2876) who were recorded in their normal school environment. The relationship between eye movements and reading assessment outcomes was analyzed in using linear mixed effects models. We found similar age-related changes in eye movement characteristics as established in previous studies, and that eye movements seem to correlate with reading outcome measures. Additionally, our results show that eye movements predict the results on several tests from a word reading assessment. Hence eye tracking may potentially be a useful tool in assessing reading development.

随着儿童阅读能力的逐步提高,他们在阅读过程中的眼动特征也会发生变化。然而,很少有眼动跟踪研究对儿童的阅读和阅读发展进行调查,而与阅读相关的眼动测量与阅读评估结果之间的关系也鲜为人知。我们在生态有效的眼动追踪装置中记录并分析了三种基本眼动测量。参与者为瑞典儿童(n = 2876),他们在正常的学校环境中接受记录。我们使用线性混合效应模型分析了眼动与阅读评估结果之间的关系。我们发现,眼球运动特征与年龄相关的变化与之前的研究相似,而且眼球运动似乎与阅读结果测量相关。此外,我们的研究结果表明,眼动可以预测单词阅读评估中多项测试的结果。因此,眼动追踪有可能成为评估阅读发展的有用工具。
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引用次数: 0
Eye Tracking in Virtual Reality: Vive Pro Eye Spatial Accuracy, Precision, and Calibration Reliability. 虚拟现实中的眼动追踪:Vive Pro 眼球空间精确度、精度和校准可靠性。
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-09-07 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.3.3
Immo Schuetz, Katja Fiehler

A growing number of virtual reality devices now include eye tracking technology, which can facilitate oculomotor and cognitive research in VR and enable use cases like foveated rendering. These applications require different tracking performance, often measured as spatial accuracy and precision. While manufacturers report data quality estimates for their devices, these typically represent ideal performance and may not reflect real-world data quality. Additionally, it is unclear how accuracy and precision change across sessions within the same participant or between devices, and how performance is influenced by vision correction. Here, we measured spatial accuracy and precision of the Vive Pro Eye built-in eye tracker across a range of 30 visual degrees horizontally and vertically. Participants completed ten measurement sessions over multiple days, allowing to evaluate calibration reliability. Accuracy and precision were highest for central gaze and decreased with greater eccentricity in both axes. Calibration was successful in all participants, including those wearing contacts or glasses, but glasses yielded significantly lower performance. We further found differences in accuracy (but not precision) between two Vive Pro Eye headsets, and estimated participants' inter-pupillary distance. Our metrics suggest high calibration reliability and can serve as a baseline for expected eye tracking performance in VR experiments.

现在,越来越多的虚拟现实设备都包含眼球跟踪技术,这有助于在虚拟现实中开展眼球运动和认知研究,并实现诸如有焦点渲染等用例。这些应用需要不同的跟踪性能,通常以空间准确度和精确度来衡量。虽然制造商会报告其设备的数据质量估计值,但这些估计值通常代表理想性能,可能无法反映真实世界的数据质量。此外,准确度和精确度在同一参与者或不同设备之间的不同过程中如何变化,以及视力矫正对性能的影响如何,目前尚不清楚。在此,我们测量了 Vive Pro Eye 内置眼动追踪器在水平和垂直方向 30 可视度范围内的空间准确度和精确度。参与者在多天内完成了十次测量,从而评估了校准的可靠性。中心注视的准确度和精确度最高,随着两个坐标轴偏心率的增加,准确度和精确度均有所下降。所有参与者,包括戴隐形眼镜或眼镜的人,都能成功进行校准,但戴眼镜的人校准效果明显较差。我们进一步发现了两款 Vive Pro Eye 头显在准确度(而非精确度)上的差异,并估算了参与者的瞳间距离。我们的指标表明校准可靠性很高,可以作为 VR 实验中预期眼动追踪性能的基准。
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引用次数: 0
Effects of word length and word frequency among dyslexic, ADHD-I and typical readers. 单词长度和单词频率对阅读障碍、ADHD-I 和典型读者的影响。
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-06-14 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.1.1
Norberto Pereira, Maria Armanda Costa, Manuela Guerreiro

This study aimed to investigate the neuropsycholinguistic functioning of children with Developmental Dyslexia (DD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - inattentive subtype (ADHD-I) in a reading task. The psycholinguistic profile of both groups was assessed using a battery of neuropsychological and linguistic tests and compared to typical readers. Participants were submitted to a silent reading task with lexical manipulation of the text. Eye movements were recorded and compared aiming to find cognitive processes involved in reading that could help differentiate groups. The study examined whether word-frequency and word-length effects distinguish between groups. Participants included 19 typical readers, 21 children diagnosed with ADHD-I and 19 children with DD. All participants were attending 4th grade and had a mean age of 9.08 years. Children with DD and ADHDI exhibited significant different cognitive and linguistic profiles on almost all measures evaluated when compared to typical readers. The effects of word length and word frequency interaction also differed significantly in the 3 experimental groups. The results support the multiple cognitive deficits theory. While the shared deficits support the evidence of a phonological disorder present in both conditions, the specific ones corroborate the hypothesis of an oculomotor dysfunction in DD and a visuo-spatial attention dysfunction in ADHD.

本研究旨在调查发育性阅读障碍(DD)和注意力缺陷/多动障碍--注意力不集中亚型(ADHD-I)儿童在阅读任务中的神经心理语言功能。我们通过一系列神经心理学和语言测试对这两个群体的心理语言学特征进行了评估,并将其与典型读者进行了比较。受试者在默读任务中对文本进行词汇操作。研究人员记录并比较了他们的眼球运动,旨在发现阅读过程中的认知过程,以帮助区分不同的群体。研究考察了词频和词长效应是否能区分不同的群体。参与者包括 19 名典型阅读者、21 名被诊断为多动症-I 的儿童和 19 名残疾儿童。所有参与者均就读于四年级,平均年龄为 9.08 岁。在几乎所有的评估指标上,患有聋哑症和注意力缺陷障碍的儿童与典型阅读者相比,在认知和语言方面都表现出明显的差异。单词长度和单词频率的交互影响在三个实验组中也有显著差异。结果支持多重认知缺陷理论。共同的缺陷支持了两种情况下都存在语音障碍的证据,而特定的缺陷则证实了DD存在眼球运动功能障碍和ADHD存在视觉空间注意力功能障碍的假设。
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引用次数: 0
Investigating Non-Visual Eye Movements Non-Intrusively: Comparing Manual and Automatic Annotation Styles 非侵入性调查非视觉眼动:手动和自动注释风格的比较
IF 2.1 4区 心理学 Q3 OPHTHALMOLOGY Pub Date : 2022-04-22 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.15.2.1
Jeremias Stüber, Lina Junctorius, A. Hohenberger
Non-visual eye-movements (NVEMs) are eye movements that do not serve the provision of visual information. As of yet, their cognitive origins and meaning remain under-explored in eye-movement research. The first problem presenting itself in pursuit of their study is one of annotation: in virtue of their being non-visual, they are not necessarily bound to a specific surface or object of interest, rendering conventional eye-trackers nonideal for their study. This, however, makes it potentially viable to investigate them without requiring high resolution data. In this report, we present two approaches to annotating NVEM data – one of them grid-based, involving manual annotation in ELAN (18), the other one Cartesian coordinate-based, derived algorithmically through OpenFace (1). We evaluated a) the two approaches in themselves, e.g. in terms of consistency, as well as b) their compatibility, i.e. the possibilities of mapping one to the other. In the case of a), we found good overall consistency in both approaches, in the case of b), there is evidence for the eventual possibility of mapping the OpenFace gaze estimations onto the manual coding grid.
非视觉眼球运动(NVEM)是不为提供视觉信息服务的眼球运动。到目前为止,它们的认知起源和意义在眼动研究中还没有得到充分的探索。在追求他们的研究过程中出现的第一个问题是注释:由于它们是非视觉的,它们不一定与感兴趣的特定表面或对象绑定,这使得传统的眼动仪不适合他们的研究。然而,这使得在不需要高分辨率数据的情况下对其进行调查成为可能。在本报告中,我们提出了两种注释NVEM数据的方法——一种是基于网格的,涉及ELAN中的手动注释(18),另一种是通过OpenFace(1)算法推导的基于笛卡尔坐标的。我们评估了a)这两种方法本身,例如在一致性方面,以及b)它们的兼容性,即将一种方法映射到另一种方法的可能性。在a)的情况下,我们发现两种方法具有良好的整体一致性,在b)的情况中,有证据表明最终有可能将OpenFace凝视估计映射到手动编码网格上。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of Eye Movement Research
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