S. Rassel, M. R. Kaysir, Abdulrahman Aloraynan, D. Ban
Abstract. Capacitance spectroscopy is a promising technique for detecting small changes in electrical properties of human blood such as conductivity, permittivity, capacitance, and dielectric constant due to the change of glucose concentration. We studied the capacitance of tissue-mimicking phantoms and the human body, in vitro and in vivo, for detecting blood sugar levels non-invasively by a simple and cost-effective setup. We found that, in tissue-mimicking phantoms, capacitance decreased ∼19 % for glucose concentration increases of 85 % with a correlation coefficient of R2=0.96. In the oral meal tolerance test (OMTT), the body capacitance increased less than 9 % for a 50 % increase in blood sugar level, and it followed the invasive reference with a lag time of ∼25–45 min and semi-invasive reference with a nominal time delay. This lag time is associated with the food digestion time and the diffusion time for the glucose to reach interstitial fluid from blood vessels. We also studied different types of metal pads made of copper, gold-coated copper, and aluminum with various sizes for system optimization. Considering the simplicity, low cost, easy operation, and moderate performance, this capacitive spectroscopy could potentially be a promising technique of detecting blood sugar levels and could be incorporated into other blood sugar detection techniques to reinforce the overall performance.
{"title":"Non-invasive blood sugar detection by cost-effective capacitance spectroscopy","authors":"S. Rassel, M. R. Kaysir, Abdulrahman Aloraynan, D. Ban","doi":"10.5194/jsss-12-21-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-21-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Capacitance spectroscopy is a promising technique for detecting small changes in electrical properties of human blood such as conductivity, permittivity, capacitance, and dielectric constant due to the change of glucose concentration. We studied the capacitance of tissue-mimicking phantoms and the human body, in vitro and in vivo, for detecting blood sugar levels non-invasively by a simple and cost-effective setup. We found that, in tissue-mimicking phantoms, capacitance decreased ∼19 % for glucose concentration increases of 85 % with a correlation coefficient of R2=0.96. In the oral meal tolerance test (OMTT), the body capacitance increased less than 9 % for a 50 % increase in blood sugar level, and it followed the invasive reference with a lag time of ∼25–45 min and semi-invasive reference with a nominal time delay. This lag time is associated with the food digestion time and the diffusion time for the glucose to reach interstitial fluid from blood vessels. We also studied different types of metal pads made of copper, gold-coated copper, and aluminum with various sizes for system optimization. Considering the simplicity, low cost, easy operation, and moderate performance, this capacitive spectroscopy could potentially be a promising technique of detecting blood sugar levels and could be incorporated into other blood sugar detection techniques to reinforce the overall performance.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48582670","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
K. Schmitt, Mara Sendelbach, C. Weber, J. Wöllenstein, T. Strahl
Abstract. Against the background of the steady increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, a fast and inexpensive method for detecting methane is required. This applies to the direct measurement of the background concentration of methane in the atmosphere and also to the detection of leaks in natural gas pipelines. Photoacoustic (PA) sensors offer the possibility of highly sensitive gas detection and cost-effective design at the same time. In this work, we investigated a photoacoustic sensor for methane in low concentrations, focusing on a special cell design, the so-called T-cell. Different cylinder geometries of six T-cells and the influence on the sensor performance were examined. An interband cascade laser (ICL) with a central wavelength of 3270 nm was used for excitation and a micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) microphone as detector. The detection limits achieved were below the methane background concentration in air of 1.8 ppm.
{"title":"Resonant photoacoustic cells for laser-based methane detection","authors":"K. Schmitt, Mara Sendelbach, C. Weber, J. Wöllenstein, T. Strahl","doi":"10.5194/jsss-12-37-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-37-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Against the background of the steady increase in\u0000greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, a fast and inexpensive method for\u0000detecting methane is required. This applies to the direct measurement of the\u0000background concentration of methane in the atmosphere and also to the\u0000detection of leaks in natural gas pipelines. Photoacoustic (PA) sensors\u0000offer the possibility of highly sensitive gas detection and\u0000cost-effective design at the same time. In this work, we investigated a photoacoustic sensor\u0000for methane in low concentrations, focusing on a special cell design, the\u0000so-called T-cell. Different cylinder geometries of six T-cells and the\u0000influence on the sensor performance were examined. An interband cascade\u0000laser (ICL) with a central wavelength of 3270 nm was used for excitation\u0000and a micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) microphone as detector. The detection limits achieved were below\u0000the methane background concentration in air of 1.8 ppm.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42075325","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Johanna Distler, T. Wöhrl, R. Werner, Michaela Gerlach, M. Gollner, F. Linseis, J. Kita, R. Moos
Abstract. In this paper, the first steps towards integrating a mass sensing system into an existing miniaturized ceramic DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) chip are presented. A vibration setup is developed based on the mass-dependent change in frequency of the DSC chip as an oscillating cantilever. A simulation model reveals that the resolution of the measurement can be improved by reducing the chip thickness. In this study, different measurement methods (acoustic, optical, and piezoresistive) are investigated. Three complete measurement systems are set up and evaluated with regard to their integration in the DSC chip. All presented measurement methods show promising results and already allow mass measurements with a resolution of 100 µg.
{"title":"Miniaturized differential scanning calorimeter with an integrated mass sensing system: first steps","authors":"Johanna Distler, T. Wöhrl, R. Werner, Michaela Gerlach, M. Gollner, F. Linseis, J. Kita, R. Moos","doi":"10.5194/jsss-12-9-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-9-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. In this paper, the first steps towards integrating a mass sensing system\u0000into an existing miniaturized ceramic DSC (differential scanning\u0000calorimetry) chip are presented. A vibration setup is developed based on the mass-dependent change in frequency of the DSC chip as an oscillating\u0000cantilever. A simulation model reveals that the resolution of the\u0000measurement can be improved by reducing the chip thickness. In this study,\u0000different measurement methods (acoustic, optical, and piezoresistive) are\u0000investigated. Three complete measurement systems are set up and evaluated\u0000with regard to their integration in the DSC chip. All presented measurement\u0000methods show promising results and already allow mass measurements with a\u0000resolution of 100 µg.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47407594","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. The miniaturisation of components leads to new demands on measurement systems. One of these is the resolution. As a volumetric analysis method and method of non-destructive testing, industrial X-ray computed tomography (XCT) has the ability to measure geometrical features and their corresponding dimensions without destroying them and can therefore be used for quality assurance. However, the concept of resolution is not trivial for XCT and has not yet been finally clarified. In particular, the interface structural resolution, the detectability of two surfaces facing each other after surface segmentation, faces a lack of a test specimen, a corresponding measurand and a reliable method. Simulation-based XCT investigations of a method to determine this type of resolution are presented in this article using the geometry of a test specimen that contains several radially arranged holes of the same size. The borehole diameters correspond to the distance between the holes to investigate the resolvability of surfaces and interfaces. The evaluation is based on mean and extreme values of grey value profiles between the individual boreholes of the reconstructed volume. It is shown that the geometrical detectability of the test specimen surface and interface can be extended by a reasonable choice of the threshold value for surface segmentation within a defined interval. With regard to the resolving capability, a distinction is made between assured detectability and possible detectability, as well as the threshold value used when using the ISO50 threshold for surface segmentation and measurement chain completion.
{"title":"Simulation-based investigation of the metrological interface structural resolution capability of X-ray computed tomography scanners","authors":"M. Busch, T. Hausotte","doi":"10.5194/jsss-12-1-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-1-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The miniaturisation of components leads to new demands on\u0000measurement systems. One of these is the resolution. As a volumetric analysis\u0000method and method of non-destructive testing, industrial X-ray computed\u0000tomography (XCT) has the ability to measure geometrical features and their\u0000corresponding dimensions without destroying them and can therefore be used for\u0000quality assurance. However, the concept of resolution is not trivial for XCT\u0000and has not yet been finally clarified. In particular, the interface structural\u0000resolution, the detectability of two surfaces facing each other after\u0000surface segmentation, faces a lack of a test specimen, a corresponding\u0000measurand and a reliable method. Simulation-based XCT investigations of a\u0000method to determine this type of resolution are presented in this article\u0000using the geometry of a test specimen that contains several radially\u0000arranged holes of the same size. The borehole diameters correspond to the\u0000distance between the holes to investigate the resolvability of surfaces and\u0000interfaces. The evaluation is based on mean and extreme values of grey value\u0000profiles between the individual boreholes of the reconstructed volume. It is\u0000shown that the geometrical detectability of the test specimen surface and\u0000interface can be extended by a reasonable choice of the threshold value for\u0000surface segmentation within a defined interval. With regard to the resolving\u0000capability, a distinction is made between assured detectability and possible\u0000detectability, as well as the threshold value used when using the ISO50\u0000threshold for surface segmentation and measurement chain completion.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46885887","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-11-15DOI: 10.5194/jsss-11-299-2022
Sebastian Schlack, H. Wulfmeier, H. Fritze
Abstract. High-temperature stable piezoelectric Ca3TaGa3Si2O14 and La3Ga5SiO14 resonators with keyhole-shaped Pt electrodes are coated with metal oxide films such as TiO2−δ and SnO2 that overlap the Pt electrodes. The resonators are exposed to reducing atmospheres in order to increase the electrical conductivity of the oxide film and then act as extended oxide electrodes. The resulting increase in the effective electrode radius causes an increase in the mass sensitivity of the resonators and, thereby, resonance frequency shifts. In other words, the effective mass of the Pt electrode becomes higher. An electrical circuit model is presented to describe the increase in the effective electrode radius of the resonator, which is used to calculate the related resonance frequency shift. Additionally, an electromechanical model is presented, which subdivides the resonator into two coupled oscillators. One is representing the resonator volume underneath the Pt electrode and the other underneath the oxide electrode at increased electrical conductivity. The model reflects how the oxide electrodes affect the resonance frequency. Furthermore, the impact of increasing oxide electrode conductivity on the resonance frequency is discussed with respect to the application of oxide electrodes and for gas sensing.
{"title":"Impact of electrode conductivity on mass sensitivity of piezoelectric resonators at high temperatures","authors":"Sebastian Schlack, H. Wulfmeier, H. Fritze","doi":"10.5194/jsss-11-299-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-299-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. High-temperature stable piezoelectric Ca3TaGa3Si2O14 and La3Ga5SiO14 resonators with keyhole-shaped Pt electrodes are coated with metal oxide films such as TiO2−δ and SnO2 that overlap the Pt electrodes. The resonators are exposed to reducing atmospheres in order to increase the electrical conductivity of the oxide film and then act as extended oxide electrodes. The resulting increase in the effective electrode radius causes an increase in the mass sensitivity of the resonators and, thereby, resonance frequency shifts. In other words, the effective mass of the Pt electrode becomes higher. An electrical circuit model is presented to describe the increase in the effective electrode radius of the resonator, which is used to calculate the related resonance frequency shift. Additionally, an electromechanical model is presented, which subdivides the resonator into two coupled oscillators. One is representing the resonator volume underneath the Pt electrode and the other underneath the oxide electrode at increased electrical conductivity. The model reflects how the oxide electrodes affect the resonance frequency. Furthermore, the impact of increasing oxide electrode conductivity on the resonance frequency is discussed with respect to the application of oxide electrodes and for gas sensing.","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2022-11-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49508193","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-10-11DOI: 10.5194/jsss-11-287-2022
L. Bifano, M. Weider, A. Fischerauer, Gotthard Wolf, G. Fischerauer
Abstract. This work deals with the impedimetric monitoring of used-sand regeneration in the foundry industry. During the regeneration of used sand, a quartz sand similar to new sand is produced from already used molding and core sand, which especially serves to produce new cores. We explore whether the regeneration progress can be assessed in situ based on measured impedance spectra and their features. The impedances of plate capacitors filled with different typical used-sand mixtures, consisting of quartz sand, coal dust, and bentonite, were repeatedly measured in a frequency range from 500 Hz to 1 MHz. The reproducibility of the measurements proved to be sufficient for practical applications. The mean impedances were plotted in Nyquist diagrams. From these plots, systematic impedance–composition correlations could be determined for two of the three component systems. Conclusions about the regeneration state could be drawn from the impedance curves by introducing various features. These were the median, the mean, and the standard deviation of the frequency-dependent resistance and reactance. With these indicators, it was then possible to establish one-to-one relations between the material composition of the molding materials and the impedance measurement. In field measurements on regenerated used sands, this observation was confirmed, and the regeneration progress was observed on the basis of the impedimetrically determined characteristic data.
{"title":"In situ monitoring of used-sand regeneration in foundries by impedance spectroscopy","authors":"L. Bifano, M. Weider, A. Fischerauer, Gotthard Wolf, G. Fischerauer","doi":"10.5194/jsss-11-287-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-287-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. This work deals with the impedimetric monitoring of used-sand regeneration in the foundry industry. During the regeneration of used sand, a quartz sand similar to new sand is produced from already used molding and core sand, which especially serves to produce new cores. We explore whether the regeneration progress can be assessed in situ based on measured impedance spectra and their features. The impedances of plate capacitors filled with different typical used-sand mixtures, consisting of quartz sand, coal dust, and bentonite, were repeatedly measured in a frequency range from 500 Hz to 1 MHz. The reproducibility of the measurements proved to be sufficient for practical applications. The mean impedances were plotted in Nyquist diagrams. From these plots, systematic impedance–composition correlations could be determined for two of the three component systems. Conclusions about the regeneration state could be drawn from the impedance curves by introducing various features. These were the median, the mean, and the standard deviation of the frequency-dependent resistance and reactance. With these indicators, it was then possible to establish one-to-one relations between the material composition of the molding materials and the impedance measurement. In field measurements on regenerated used sands, this observation was confirmed, and the regeneration progress was observed on the basis of the impedimetrically determined characteristic data.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43104513","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-09-16DOI: 10.5194/jsss-11-277-2022
Peter Bischoff, A. Carreiro, C. Kroh, C. Schuster, T. Härtling
Abstract. Tracking and tracing are a key technology for production process optimization and subsequent cost reduction. However, several industrial environments (e.g. high temperatures in metal processing) are challenging for most part-marking and identification approaches. A method for printing individual part markings on metal components (e.g. data matrix codes (DMCs) or similar identifiers) with high temperatures and chemical resistance has been developed based on drop-on-demand (DOD) print technology and special ink dispersions with submicrometer-sized ceramic and glass particles. Both ink and printer are required to work highly reliably without nozzle clogging or other failures to prevent interruptions of the production process in which the printing technology is used. This is especially challenging for the pigmented inks applied here. To perform long-term tests with different ink formulations and to assess print quality over time, we set up a test bench for inkjet printing systems. We present a novel approach for monitoring the printhead's state as well as the print-quality degradation. This method does not require measuring and monitoring, e.g. electrical components or drop flight, as it is done in the state of the art and instead uses only the printed result. By digitally quantifying selected quality factors within the printed result and evaluating their progression over time, several non-stationary measurands were identified. Some of these measurands show a monotonic trend and, hence, can be used to measure print-quality degradation. These results are a promising basis for automated printing system maintenance.
{"title":"En route to automated maintenance of industrial printing systems: digital quantification of print-quality factors based on induced printing failure","authors":"Peter Bischoff, A. Carreiro, C. Kroh, C. Schuster, T. Härtling","doi":"10.5194/jsss-11-277-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-277-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Tracking and tracing are a key technology for production process optimization and subsequent cost reduction. However, several industrial environments (e.g. high temperatures in metal processing) are challenging for most part-marking and identification approaches. A method for printing individual part markings on metal components (e.g. data matrix codes (DMCs) or similar identifiers) with high temperatures and chemical resistance has been developed based on drop-on-demand (DOD) print technology and special ink dispersions with submicrometer-sized ceramic and glass particles. Both ink and printer are required to work highly reliably without nozzle clogging or other failures to prevent interruptions of the production process in which the printing technology is used. This is especially challenging for the pigmented inks applied here. To perform long-term tests with different ink formulations and to assess print quality over time, we set up a test bench for inkjet printing systems. We present a novel approach for monitoring the printhead's state as well as the print-quality degradation. This method does not require measuring and monitoring, e.g. electrical components or drop flight, as it is done in the state of the art and instead uses only the printed result. By digitally quantifying selected quality factors within the printed result and evaluating their progression over time, several non-stationary measurands were identified. Some of these measurands show a monotonic trend and, hence, can be used to measure print-quality degradation. These results are a promising basis for automated printing system maintenance.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2022-09-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48991376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-08-26DOI: 10.5194/jsss-11-263-2022
F. Schösser, F. Schmitt, E. Kirchner, Richard Breimann
Abstract. Motivated by the application of industry 4.0 and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, the development of cyber physical systems (CPS) is gaining momentum. As CPS require multiple measurement technologies to drive the intended function, e.g., condition monitoring and in situ measurement, the integration of measurement systems into industrial processes or individual products becomes a critical activity within the development process. Development methods like the V-Model support developers with methodological guidelines, but the related methods and models do not provide sufficient information regarding the energy supply of embedded systems. If the measurement system, consisting of sensor, calculation and communication unit is integrated inside an either sealed or moveable system, e.g., in a gearbox, ensuring a reliable communication and energy supply is a challenging task. This contribution therefore focuses on the energy supply, in particular the electric power consumption of autarchic measurement systems, referred to as sensor nodes. Based on a literature review of existing physical principles determining the energy consumption of semiconductors, a simple estimation model is derived. Estimation models in the current literature mainly focus on the effects of source code or software in general without analyzing a possible impact of operation strategies, such as generic data processing logics in practical applications. The model presented in this contribution is therefore used to identify the energy consumption of sensor nodes influenced by ambient and operating conditions of sensor nodes. Strategies are examined experimentally using an exemplary sensor node, a climatic chamber and a sensor-integrated gearbox as the system to be observed. An analysis of the conducted experiments leads to a more precise model, which is evaluated regarding its significance for predicting the energy consumption and the underlying simplifications. Finally, general relations influencing the energy consumption are presented and necessary research suggested.
{"title":"Influence of the operation strategy on the energy consumption of an autonomous sensor node","authors":"F. Schösser, F. Schmitt, E. Kirchner, Richard Breimann","doi":"10.5194/jsss-11-263-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-263-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Motivated by the application of industry 4.0 and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, the development of cyber physical systems (CPS) is gaining momentum. As CPS require multiple measurement technologies to drive the intended function, e.g., condition monitoring and in situ measurement, the integration of measurement systems into industrial processes or individual products becomes a critical activity within the development process. Development methods like the V-Model support developers with methodological guidelines, but the related methods and models do not provide sufficient information regarding the energy supply of embedded systems. If the measurement system, consisting of sensor, calculation and communication unit is integrated inside an either sealed or moveable system, e.g., in a gearbox, ensuring a reliable communication and energy supply is a challenging task. This contribution therefore focuses on the energy supply, in particular the electric power consumption of autarchic measurement systems, referred to as sensor nodes. Based on a literature review of existing physical principles determining the energy consumption of semiconductors, a simple estimation model is derived. Estimation models in the current literature mainly focus on the effects of source code or software in general without analyzing a possible impact of operation strategies, such as generic data processing logics in practical applications. The model presented in this contribution is therefore used to identify the energy consumption of sensor nodes influenced by ambient and operating conditions of sensor nodes. Strategies are examined experimentally using an exemplary sensor node, a climatic chamber and a sensor-integrated gearbox as the system to be observed. An analysis of the conducted experiments leads to a more precise model, which is evaluated regarding its significance for predicting the energy consumption and the underlying simplifications. Finally, general relations influencing the energy consumption are presented and necessary research suggested.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2022-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44866453","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-08-10DOI: 10.5194/jsss-11-233-2022
H. Abd, A. König
Abstract. The number of sensors used in modern devices is rapidly increasing, and the interaction with sensors demands analog-to-digital data conversion (ADC). A conventional ADC in leading-edge technologies faces many issues due to signal swings, manufacturing deviations, noise, etc. Designers of ADCs are moving to the time domain and digital designs techniques to deal with these issues. This work pursues a novel self-adaptive spiking neural ADC (SN-ADC) design with promising features, e.g., technology scaling issues, low-voltage operation, low power, and noise-robust conditioning. The SN-ADC uses spike time to carry the information. Therefore, it can be effectively translated to aggressive new technologies to implement reliable advanced sensory electronic systems. The SN-ADC supports self-x (self-calibration, self-optimization, and self-healing) and machine learning required for the internet of things (IoT) and Industry 4.0. We have designed the main part of SN-ADC, which is an adaptive spike-to-digital converter (ASDC). The ASDC is based on a self-adaptive complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) memristor. It mimics the functionality of biological synapses, long-term plasticity, and short-term plasticity. The key advantage of our design is the entirely local unsupervised adaptation scheme. The adaptation scheme consists of two hierarchical layers; the first layer is self-adapted, and the second layer is manually treated in this work. In our previous work, the adaptation process is based on 96 variables. Therefore, it requires considerable adaptation time to correct the synapses' weight. This paper proposes a novel self-adaptive scheme to reduce the number of variables to only four and has better adaptation capability with less delay time than our previous implementation. The maximum adaptation times of our previous work and this work are 15 h and 27 min vs. 1 min and 47.3 s. The current winner-take-all (WTA) circuits have issues, a high-cost design, and no identifying the close spikes. Therefore, a novel WTA circuit with memory is proposed. It used 352 transistors for 16 inputs and can process spikes with a minimum time difference of 3 ns. The ASDC has been tested under static and dynamic variations. The nominal values of the SN-ADC parameters' number of missing codes (NOMCs), integral non-linearity (INL), and differential non-linearity (DNL) are no missing code, 0.4 and 0.22 LSB, respectively, where LSB stands for the least significant bit. However, these values are degraded due to the dynamic and static deviation with maximum simulated change equal to 0.88 and 4 LSB and 6 codes for DNL, INL, and NOMC, respectively. The adaptation resets the SN-ADC parameters to the nominal values. The proposed ASDC is designed using X-FAB 0.35 µm CMOS technology and Cadence tools.
{"title":"Design of a CMOS memristor emulator-based, self-adaptive spiking analog-to-digital data conversion as the lowest level of a self-x hierarchy","authors":"H. Abd, A. König","doi":"10.5194/jsss-11-233-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-233-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The number of sensors used in modern devices is rapidly increasing, and the interaction with sensors demands analog-to-digital data conversion (ADC). A conventional ADC in leading-edge technologies faces many issues due to signal swings, manufacturing deviations, noise, etc. Designers of ADCs are moving to the time domain and digital designs techniques to deal with these issues. This work pursues a novel self-adaptive spiking neural ADC (SN-ADC) design with promising features, e.g., technology scaling issues, low-voltage operation, low power, and noise-robust conditioning. The SN-ADC uses spike time to carry the information. Therefore, it can be effectively translated to aggressive new technologies to implement reliable advanced sensory electronic systems. The SN-ADC supports self-x (self-calibration, self-optimization, and self-healing) and machine learning required for the internet of things (IoT) and Industry 4.0. We have designed the main part of SN-ADC, which is an adaptive spike-to-digital converter (ASDC). The ASDC is based on a self-adaptive complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) memristor. It mimics the functionality of biological synapses, long-term plasticity, and short-term plasticity. The key advantage of our design is the entirely local unsupervised adaptation scheme. The adaptation scheme consists of two hierarchical layers; the first layer is self-adapted, and the second layer is manually treated in this work. In our previous work, the adaptation process is based on 96 variables. Therefore, it requires considerable adaptation time to correct the synapses' weight. This paper proposes a novel self-adaptive scheme to reduce the number of variables to only four and has better adaptation capability with less delay time than our previous implementation. The maximum adaptation times of our previous work and this work are 15 h and 27 min vs. 1 min and 47.3 s. The current winner-take-all (WTA) circuits have issues, a high-cost design, and no identifying the close spikes. Therefore, a novel WTA circuit with memory is proposed. It used 352 transistors for 16 inputs and can process spikes with a minimum time difference of 3 ns. The ASDC has been tested under static and dynamic variations. The nominal values of the SN-ADC parameters' number of missing codes (NOMCs), integral non-linearity (INL), and differential non-linearity (DNL) are no missing code, 0.4 and 0.22 LSB, respectively, where LSB stands for the least significant bit. However, these values are degraded due to the dynamic and static deviation with maximum simulated change equal to 0.88 and 4 LSB and 6 codes for DNL, INL, and NOMC, respectively. The adaptation resets the SN-ADC parameters to the nominal values. The proposed ASDC is designed using X-FAB 0.35 µm CMOS technology and Cadence tools.\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2022-08-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47925221","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-08-09DOI: 10.5194/jsss-11-225-2022
G. Stocker, C. Consani, P. Thakkar, C. Fleury, A. Tortschanoff, Khaoula-Farah Ourak, G. Pühringer, R. Jannesari, P. Saeidi, E. Aschauer, U. Bartl, Christoph Kovatsch, T. Grille, B. Jakoby
Abstract. The increasing popularity of environments equipped with sensors for convenience and with safety features, as in, for example, smart homes, greenhouses, or the interior of modern cars, demands a variety of sensor systems. In this respect, the sensing of ambient gases in the sense of air quality monitoring or leakage detection is one of the prominent applications. However, even though there are many different systems already available, the trend goes towards smaller and rather inconspicuous sensors which are embedded in the environment. We present the fabrication and characterization of integrated waveguides, which constitute an interesting platform for absorption spectroscopy in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) using the evanescent field of guided modes interacting with the analyte, thus leading to the absorption-induced attenuation of the mode. Corresponding simulations, characterizing the efficiency of the desired interaction, predict values for the confinement factor Γ and the intrinsic damping D for a waveguide geometry, which is then characterized by measurements. Furthermore, we discuss how these waveguides could be part of an integrated, non-dispersive, mid-IR sensor system fully integrated on a single chip. In this context, we present a way to maintain the quality of waveguides throughout the entire workflow needed to integrate a pyroelectric IR detector based on aluminum nitride (AlN).
{"title":"Fabrication of integrated polysilicon waveguides for mid-infrared absorption sensing","authors":"G. Stocker, C. Consani, P. Thakkar, C. Fleury, A. Tortschanoff, Khaoula-Farah Ourak, G. Pühringer, R. Jannesari, P. Saeidi, E. Aschauer, U. Bartl, Christoph Kovatsch, T. Grille, B. Jakoby","doi":"10.5194/jsss-11-225-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-225-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The increasing popularity of environments equipped with sensors for convenience and with safety features, as in, for example, smart homes, greenhouses, or the interior of modern cars, demands a variety of sensor systems. In this respect, the sensing of ambient gases in the sense of air quality monitoring or leakage detection is one of the prominent applications. However, even though there are many different systems already available, the trend goes towards smaller and rather inconspicuous sensors which are embedded in the environment. We present the fabrication and characterization of integrated waveguides, which constitute an interesting platform for absorption spectroscopy in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) using the evanescent field of guided modes interacting with the analyte, thus leading to the absorption-induced attenuation of the mode. Corresponding simulations, characterizing the efficiency of the desired interaction, predict values for the confinement factor Γ and the intrinsic damping D for a waveguide geometry, which is then characterized by measurements. Furthermore, we discuss how these waveguides could be part of an integrated, non-dispersive, mid-IR sensor system fully integrated on a single chip. In this context, we present a way to maintain the quality of waveguides throughout the entire workflow needed to integrate a pyroelectric IR detector based on aluminum nitride (AlN).\u0000","PeriodicalId":17167,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.0,"publicationDate":"2022-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44445649","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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