Pub Date : 2025-02-12DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00639-6
Alfred J. Wilson, Christopher J. Davies, Andrew M. Walker, Monica Pozzo, Dario Alfè, Arwen Deuss
The growth of the solid inner core from the liquid outer core provides crucial power for generating the geomagnetic field. However, the traditional view of inner core growth does not include the physical requirement that liquids must be supercooled below the melting point before freezing can begin. In this Review, we explore the impact of supercooling the Earth’s core on inner core formation, growth and dynamics, and the interpretation of seismic and palaeomagnetic observations. Mineral physics calculations suggest that at least 450 K of supercooling is needed to spontaneously nucleate the inner core. However, when satisfying inferences from geophysical constraints, the maximum available supercooling is estimated at 420 K and more probably <100 K. Supercooling the Earth’s core requires that the inner core had at least two growth regimes. The first regime is a rapid phase that freezes supercooled liquids at rates comparable to outer core dynamics (cm yr−1), followed by the second regime that is a traditional in-equilibrium growth phase proportional to the cooling rate of the core (mm yr−1). Future research should seek evidence for rapid growth in the palaeomagnetic and seismic records and the mechanisms that produce deformation texture, particularly those owing to heterogeneous inner core growth, inner core convection, and coupling between freezing and the magnetic field. Nucleation and growth of Earth’s solid inner core has a crucial role powering the geomagnetic field. This Review explores the timing and mechanisms of inner core growth consistent with physical constraints and first-order observations of the thermal evolution of Earth.
{"title":"The formation and evolution of the Earth’s inner core","authors":"Alfred J. Wilson, Christopher J. Davies, Andrew M. Walker, Monica Pozzo, Dario Alfè, Arwen Deuss","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00639-6","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00639-6","url":null,"abstract":"The growth of the solid inner core from the liquid outer core provides crucial power for generating the geomagnetic field. However, the traditional view of inner core growth does not include the physical requirement that liquids must be supercooled below the melting point before freezing can begin. In this Review, we explore the impact of supercooling the Earth’s core on inner core formation, growth and dynamics, and the interpretation of seismic and palaeomagnetic observations. Mineral physics calculations suggest that at least 450 K of supercooling is needed to spontaneously nucleate the inner core. However, when satisfying inferences from geophysical constraints, the maximum available supercooling is estimated at 420 K and more probably <100 K. Supercooling the Earth’s core requires that the inner core had at least two growth regimes. The first regime is a rapid phase that freezes supercooled liquids at rates comparable to outer core dynamics (cm yr−1), followed by the second regime that is a traditional in-equilibrium growth phase proportional to the cooling rate of the core (mm yr−1). Future research should seek evidence for rapid growth in the palaeomagnetic and seismic records and the mechanisms that produce deformation texture, particularly those owing to heterogeneous inner core growth, inner core convection, and coupling between freezing and the magnetic field. Nucleation and growth of Earth’s solid inner core has a crucial role powering the geomagnetic field. This Review explores the timing and mechanisms of inner core growth consistent with physical constraints and first-order observations of the thermal evolution of Earth.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 2","pages":"140-154"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389471","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-06DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00627-w
Jorien E. Vonk, Michael Fritz, Niek J. Speetjens, Marcel Babin, Annett Bartsch, Luana S. Basso, Lisa Bröder, Mathias Göckede, Örjan Gustafsson, Gustaf Hugelius, Anna M. Irrgang, Bennet Juhls, McKenzie A. Kuhn, Hugues Lantuit, Manfredi Manizza, Jannik Martens, Matt O’Regan, Anya Suslova, Suzanne E. Tank, Jens Terhaar, Scott Zolkos
Anthropogenic climate warming is amplified in the Arctic, impacting the Arctic carbon cycle and its role in regulating climate and global biogeochemical cycles. In this Review, we provide a quantitative and comprehensive overview of the present-day Arctic carbon cycle across the land–ocean continuum. Terrestrial soil stocks total 877 ± 16 Pg C, with upper marine sediments containing 82 ± 35 Pg C. Overall, the integrated Arctic system is a carbon sink, driven by oceanic uptake of CO2 (127 ± 36 Tg C year−1) and organic carbon burial in shelf sea sediments (112 ± 41 Tg C year–1). Terrestrial systems, including inland waters and disturbance, are a net source of CH4 (38 (21, 53) Tg C year–1) and CO2 (12 (–606, 661) Tg C year–1). The Arctic carbon sink will likely weaken under continued warming, owing to factors such as increased coastal erosion, outgassing of riverine organic carbon and enhanced nearshore carbon turnover lowering shelf sediment burial. Arctic greening and increases in terrestrial carbon sinks will be substantially offset by increases in soil respiration, disturbance from extreme events and enhanced emissions from inland waters. Future research should prioritize enhanced coverage of small catchments and nearshore regions, and inclusion of non-linear responses in biogeochemical models. Anthropogenic warming is perturbing the Arctic carbon cycle. This Review provides an overview of contemporary carbon stocks and fluxes across terrestrial, aquatic and oceanic components of the integrated Arctic system.
{"title":"The land–ocean Arctic carbon cycle","authors":"Jorien E. Vonk, Michael Fritz, Niek J. Speetjens, Marcel Babin, Annett Bartsch, Luana S. Basso, Lisa Bröder, Mathias Göckede, Örjan Gustafsson, Gustaf Hugelius, Anna M. Irrgang, Bennet Juhls, McKenzie A. Kuhn, Hugues Lantuit, Manfredi Manizza, Jannik Martens, Matt O’Regan, Anya Suslova, Suzanne E. Tank, Jens Terhaar, Scott Zolkos","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00627-w","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00627-w","url":null,"abstract":"Anthropogenic climate warming is amplified in the Arctic, impacting the Arctic carbon cycle and its role in regulating climate and global biogeochemical cycles. In this Review, we provide a quantitative and comprehensive overview of the present-day Arctic carbon cycle across the land–ocean continuum. Terrestrial soil stocks total 877 ± 16 Pg C, with upper marine sediments containing 82 ± 35 Pg C. Overall, the integrated Arctic system is a carbon sink, driven by oceanic uptake of CO2 (127 ± 36 Tg C year−1) and organic carbon burial in shelf sea sediments (112 ± 41 Tg C year–1). Terrestrial systems, including inland waters and disturbance, are a net source of CH4 (38 (21, 53) Tg C year–1) and CO2 (12 (–606, 661) Tg C year–1). The Arctic carbon sink will likely weaken under continued warming, owing to factors such as increased coastal erosion, outgassing of riverine organic carbon and enhanced nearshore carbon turnover lowering shelf sediment burial. Arctic greening and increases in terrestrial carbon sinks will be substantially offset by increases in soil respiration, disturbance from extreme events and enhanced emissions from inland waters. Future research should prioritize enhanced coverage of small catchments and nearshore regions, and inclusion of non-linear responses in biogeochemical models. Anthropogenic warming is perturbing the Arctic carbon cycle. This Review provides an overview of contemporary carbon stocks and fluxes across terrestrial, aquatic and oceanic components of the integrated Arctic system.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 2","pages":"86-105"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-024-00627-w.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389480","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-30DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00634-x
Nicholas R. Golledge, Elizabeth D. Keller, Alexandra Gossart, Alena Malyarenko, Angela Bahamondes-Dominguez, Mario Krapp, Stefan Jendersie, Daniel P. Lowry, Alanna Alevropoulos-Borrill, Dirk Notz
Coastal polynyas describe regions of persistent open water within the sea-ice pack. In this Review, we outline the critical importance of Antarctic coastal polynyas in the Earth system (including for the atmosphere, sea-ice, ocean and biosphere) and outline their past, present and future changes. Strong offshore winds are the primary force opening coastal polynyas, varying on synoptic timescales to influence polynya existence and size. The exposed ocean surface ventilates heat to the atmosphere, allowing sea surface cooling and frazil ice formation. Frazil ice increases the salinity of surface waters, ultimately sinking as dense shelf water that drives the southern limb of the global ocean overturning circulation. Light and nutrient availability in coastal polynyas also encourages high primary productivity, making them critical aspects of the Antarctic marine food web. Coastal polynya strength and location varies through time, most notably at glacial–interglacial timescales owing to changes in continental shelf available for polynya formation. Predicting the future evolution of Antarctic coastal polynyas is challenged by inadequate model resolution and poorly constrained processes and behaviours, but there are indications that activity will decline with warming. A coordinated and expanded campaign of in situ measurements, as well as new satellite-based observations that use intelligent algorithms, would improve coupled atmosphere–sea-ice–ocean models and, thereby, enhance knowledge of Antarctic coastal polynyas. Antarctic coastal polynyas have a critical role in the Earth system, influencing the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and biosphere. This Review outlines the importance of Antarctic coastal polynyas and documents their changes over time.
{"title":"Antarctic coastal polynyas in the global climate system","authors":"Nicholas R. Golledge, Elizabeth D. Keller, Alexandra Gossart, Alena Malyarenko, Angela Bahamondes-Dominguez, Mario Krapp, Stefan Jendersie, Daniel P. Lowry, Alanna Alevropoulos-Borrill, Dirk Notz","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00634-x","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00634-x","url":null,"abstract":"Coastal polynyas describe regions of persistent open water within the sea-ice pack. In this Review, we outline the critical importance of Antarctic coastal polynyas in the Earth system (including for the atmosphere, sea-ice, ocean and biosphere) and outline their past, present and future changes. Strong offshore winds are the primary force opening coastal polynyas, varying on synoptic timescales to influence polynya existence and size. The exposed ocean surface ventilates heat to the atmosphere, allowing sea surface cooling and frazil ice formation. Frazil ice increases the salinity of surface waters, ultimately sinking as dense shelf water that drives the southern limb of the global ocean overturning circulation. Light and nutrient availability in coastal polynyas also encourages high primary productivity, making them critical aspects of the Antarctic marine food web. Coastal polynya strength and location varies through time, most notably at glacial–interglacial timescales owing to changes in continental shelf available for polynya formation. Predicting the future evolution of Antarctic coastal polynyas is challenged by inadequate model resolution and poorly constrained processes and behaviours, but there are indications that activity will decline with warming. A coordinated and expanded campaign of in situ measurements, as well as new satellite-based observations that use intelligent algorithms, would improve coupled atmosphere–sea-ice–ocean models and, thereby, enhance knowledge of Antarctic coastal polynyas. Antarctic coastal polynyas have a critical role in the Earth system, influencing the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and biosphere. This Review outlines the importance of Antarctic coastal polynyas and documents their changes over time.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 2","pages":"126-139"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389475","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-27DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00644-3
Elizaveta Sharaborova
Elizaveta Sharaborova discusses how a laboratory-scale controlled cooling experiment can be used to test how a protective frozen layer can prevent the destabilization of permafrost.
{"title":"Stabilizing permafrost with solar-powered cooling systems","authors":"Elizaveta Sharaborova","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00644-3","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00644-3","url":null,"abstract":"Elizaveta Sharaborova discusses how a laboratory-scale controlled cooling experiment can be used to test how a protective frozen layer can prevent the destabilization of permafrost.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 2","pages":"85-85"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389468","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-15DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00643-4
Julie Edwards
Julie Edwards explains how quantitative wood anatomy helps refine records of past climate.
{"title":"Refining past climate records with wood anatomy","authors":"Julie Edwards","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00643-4","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00643-4","url":null,"abstract":"Julie Edwards explains how quantitative wood anatomy helps refine records of past climate.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 2","pages":"84-84"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389464","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-14DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00630-1
Sean D. Willett
Mac (6, UK) asks Prof. Sean Willett how mountains grow.
麦克（6岁，英国）问肖恩·威利特教授山是如何生长的。
{"title":"How do mountains grow?","authors":"Sean D. Willett","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00630-1","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00630-1","url":null,"abstract":"Mac (6, UK) asks Prof. Sean Willett how mountains grow.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 1","pages":"6-6"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-024-00630-1.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142976656","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-14DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00623-0
Victoria Flexer, Cornelis van Leeuwen, Kirsi Niinimäki, Shilong Piao, Erica R. Siirila-Woodburn, Lan Wang-Erlandsson
In celebration of the fifth year anniversary of Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, we ask authors of some of our most impactful articles (with respect to news stories, social media engagement, Altmetric scores, citations, policy mentions and article accesses) to reflect on the successes of their Reviews.
{"title":"Reflecting on impactful articles at Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","authors":"Victoria Flexer, Cornelis van Leeuwen, Kirsi Niinimäki, Shilong Piao, Erica R. Siirila-Woodburn, Lan Wang-Erlandsson","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00623-0","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00623-0","url":null,"abstract":"In celebration of the fifth year anniversary of Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, we ask authors of some of our most impactful articles (with respect to news stories, social media engagement, Altmetric scores, citations, policy mentions and article accesses) to reflect on the successes of their Reviews.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 1","pages":"12-16"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142976695","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-14DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00629-8
Sunke Trace-Kleeberg
Ashton (7, UK) asks Sunke Trace-Kleeberg why tides can vary so much from one location to another.
阿什顿（7岁，英国）问桑克·特雷斯-克里伯格，为什么潮汐会在不同的地方变化如此之大。
{"title":"Why do tides vary regionally?","authors":"Sunke Trace-Kleeberg","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00629-8","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00629-8","url":null,"abstract":"Ashton (7, UK) asks Sunke Trace-Kleeberg why tides can vary so much from one location to another.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 1","pages":"7-7"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-024-00629-8.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142976700","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-01-14DOI: 10.1038/s43017-024-00641-y
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment is pleased to launch a new article type — Ask an Expert — that offers the public an opportunity to have their burning questions about Earth science answered.
{"title":"Introducing ‘Ask an Expert’","authors":"","doi":"10.1038/s43017-024-00641-y","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-024-00641-y","url":null,"abstract":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment is pleased to launch a new article type — Ask an Expert — that offers the public an opportunity to have their burning questions about Earth science answered.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 1","pages":"1-1"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-024-00641-y.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142976693","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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