Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0071
Q. Karim, Urisha. Singh, C. Baxter, S. A. Abdool Karim
This chapter traces the history of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from its origins, remarkable scientific advances, and unprecedented global responses through to the current state of the epidemic, progress towards ending acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and remaining challenges. It explains the origins of HIV-1 and HIV-2, the development of a surveillance system, and the viral structure. It outlines different antiretroviral drugs used in the treatment of HIV infections, and current drug research. The prevention of both mother-to-child transmission and sexual transmission is outlined, including pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use. The development of modern technologies and social media to help people living with HIV is covered. Programmes to modify behaviour and reduce risk from injecting drug use are explained.
{"title":"Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)","authors":"Q. Karim, Urisha. Singh, C. Baxter, S. A. Abdool Karim","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0071","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0071","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter traces the history of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from its origins, remarkable scientific advances, and unprecedented global responses through to the current state of the epidemic, progress towards ending acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and remaining challenges. It explains the origins of HIV-1 and HIV-2, the development of a surveillance system, and the viral structure. It outlines different antiretroviral drugs used in the treatment of HIV infections, and current drug research. The prevention of both mother-to-child transmission and sexual transmission is outlined, including pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use. The development of modern technologies and social media to help people living with HIV is covered. Programmes to modify behaviour and reduce risk from injecting drug use are explained.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125262512","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0025
P. Sullivan, A. Siegler, L. Hightow-Weidman
New communications technologies constitute a rapidly changing field with tremendous opportunities for public health practice. Platforms include a variety of apps, which share the general characteristics of platforms to share words, text, and video content, but which have important differences in their preferred formats of media, strategies for sharing information within social networks, and user bases. These technologies can facilitate public health efforts through the provision of information, as portals for communication with those in need of services, and as platforms for public health interventions. Social media platforms also give rise to the possibility of using public data to increase understanding of health concerns and programmes—for example, using public data on internet searches or social media postings to identifying trends in infectious diseases. Despite these exciting possibilities, there are important heterogeneities globally in the coverage of smartphone devices, in data speed, and in access to data services. There are also important considerations about possible harms of technologies, and about privacy concerns for users of social media in the context of public health.
{"title":"New communication technologies, social media, and public health","authors":"P. Sullivan, A. Siegler, L. Hightow-Weidman","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0025","url":null,"abstract":"New communications technologies constitute a rapidly changing field with tremendous opportunities for public health practice. Platforms include a variety of apps, which share the general characteristics of platforms to share words, text, and video content, but which have important differences in their preferred formats of media, strategies for sharing information within social networks, and user bases. These technologies can facilitate public health efforts through the provision of information, as portals for communication with those in need of services, and as platforms for public health interventions. Social media platforms also give rise to the possibility of using public data to increase understanding of health concerns and programmes—for example, using public data on internet searches or social media postings to identifying trends in infectious diseases. Despite these exciting possibilities, there are important heterogeneities globally in the coverage of smartphone devices, in data speed, and in access to data services. There are also important considerations about possible harms of technologies, and about privacy concerns for users of social media in the context of public health.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"87 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122495088","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0050
Alison N Buttenheim, H. Thirumurthy
Human behaviour is an important determinant of health outcomes around the world. Understanding how people make health-related decisions is therefore essential for explaining health outcomes globally and for developing solutions to leading challenges in global health. Behavioural economics blends theories from economics and psychology to uncover key insights about human decision-making. This chapter describes several prominent theories from behavioural economics and reviews examples of how these theories can be useful in efforts to improve global health outcomes. We begin by reviewing the theory of rational decision-making that features prominently in economics and discuss important policy implications that follow from this theory. We then turn to theories and principles from behavioural economics and draw upon empirical evidence from around the world to highlight actionable behaviour change interventions that can be useful for students of global health and practitioners alike.
{"title":"Behavioural economics and health","authors":"Alison N Buttenheim, H. Thirumurthy","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0050","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0050","url":null,"abstract":"Human behaviour is an important determinant of health outcomes around the world. Understanding how people make health-related decisions is therefore essential for explaining health outcomes globally and for developing solutions to leading challenges in global health. Behavioural economics blends theories from economics and psychology to uncover key insights about human decision-making. This chapter describes several prominent theories from behavioural economics and reviews examples of how these theories can be useful in efforts to improve global health outcomes. We begin by reviewing the theory of rational decision-making that features prominently in economics and discuss important policy implications that follow from this theory. We then turn to theories and principles from behavioural economics and draw upon empirical evidence from around the world to highlight actionable behaviour change interventions that can be useful for students of global health and practitioners alike.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"10 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130919036","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0023
T. Staa, L. Smeeth
Public health activities are dependent on the availability of information and ability to disseminate information to clinicians/healthcare providers, individuals, and communities. The increasing computerization of healthcare systems can offer opportunities to improve these activities. Databases of electronic healthcare records are used for disease surveillance and monitoring healthcare interventions. The quality and quantity of reporting of notifiable diseases may be improved by regular review of the electronic healthcare records. Randomized trials that recruit patients at the point of care and use electronic healthcare records for collection of follow-up information can be used to test the effectiveness of healthcare intervention in routine clinical practice. Cluster trials that randomize different clinics or regions can compare different public health policies and improve the evidence base for the pragmatic use of public health interventions. Data generated within clinical information systems can be used to provide feedback and guidance to clinicians and patients as part of clinical care. Better information systems providing data on risks and benefits of healthcare interventions will provide an important impetus to evidence-based public health.
{"title":"Information systems in support of public health in high-income countries","authors":"T. Staa, L. Smeeth","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0023","url":null,"abstract":"Public health activities are dependent on the availability of information and ability to disseminate information to clinicians/healthcare providers, individuals, and communities. The increasing computerization of healthcare systems can offer opportunities to improve these activities. Databases of electronic healthcare records are used for disease surveillance and monitoring healthcare interventions. The quality and quantity of reporting of notifiable diseases may be improved by regular review of the electronic healthcare records. Randomized trials that recruit patients at the point of care and use electronic healthcare records for collection of follow-up information can be used to test the effectiveness of healthcare intervention in routine clinical practice. Cluster trials that randomize different clinics or regions can compare different public health policies and improve the evidence base for the pragmatic use of public health interventions. Data generated within clinical information systems can be used to provide feedback and guidance to clinicians and patients as part of clinical care. Better information systems providing data on risks and benefits of healthcare interventions will provide an important impetus to evidence-based public health.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128565071","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0088
Jennifer L. Beard, Nafisa Halim, S. Abdalla, S. Galea
Ethnicity, race, caste, sex, and gender are characteristics that can determine social status, health, and illness for both individuals and communities. They are among the many attributes that social epidemiologists account for when conducting research to understand the forces driving health disparities. Intersectional theory posits that each individual comprises multiple, interlocking identities that are projected on to them by the society in which they live. These identities confer multilayered privilege or disadvantage based on context-specific power dynamics, social norms, and biases. Intersectionality is a perspective that grew out of the social justice movements that have shaken entrenched systems of power and social norms over the last 60 years. Intersectional theory challenges traditional epidemiological methods of measuring associations between demographic variables and health outcomes. It also offers social epidemiology an opportunity to explore new methodologies that illuminate factors contributing to health disparities and promote social justice as core research objectives. This chapter illustrates intersections between social determinants and health outcomes in a descriptive case study focused on India and explores innovative methods for incorporating intersectionality into epidemiological research methods and analysis.
{"title":"Intersectional and social epidemiology approaches to understanding the Influence of race, ethnicity, and caste on global public health","authors":"Jennifer L. Beard, Nafisa Halim, S. Abdalla, S. Galea","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0088","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0088","url":null,"abstract":"Ethnicity, race, caste, sex, and gender are characteristics that can determine social status, health, and illness for both individuals and communities. They are among the many attributes that social epidemiologists account for when conducting research to understand the forces driving health disparities. Intersectional theory posits that each individual comprises multiple, interlocking identities that are projected on to them by the society in which they live. These identities confer multilayered privilege or disadvantage based on context-specific power dynamics, social norms, and biases. Intersectionality is a perspective that grew out of the social justice movements that have shaken entrenched systems of power and social norms over the last 60 years. Intersectional theory challenges traditional epidemiological methods of measuring associations between demographic variables and health outcomes. It also offers social epidemiology an opportunity to explore new methodologies that illuminate factors contributing to health disparities and promote social justice as core research objectives. This chapter illustrates intersections between social determinants and health outcomes in a descriptive case study focused on India and explores innovative methods for incorporating intersectionality into epidemiological research methods and analysis.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"54 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134505543","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780199661756.003.0243
V. Saphonn, S. Hone, R. Detels
Developing countries are asserting tremendous efforts to achieve universal health coverage (UHC) through primary healthcare-led approaches. Quality primary healthcare (PHC) is essential for improving health, social stability, sound national economies, and health security for all countries, rich or poor. Appropriate and competent training for public health professionals at every level, including core primary care providers, is therefore crucial for providing quality PHC, ensuring the effectiveness of the health system and, ultimately, the health of a country’s citizens. The training must embrace enduring strategies through postgraduate, refresher training, and online coaching (telemedicine) to ensure the continued competency of the public health workforce. This chapter addresses each of these issues in greater depth and makes suggestions for improvement and enhancement of health training in developing countries.
{"title":"Training of public health professionals in developing countries","authors":"V. Saphonn, S. Hone, R. Detels","doi":"10.1093/med/9780199661756.003.0243","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199661756.003.0243","url":null,"abstract":"Developing countries are asserting tremendous efforts to achieve universal health coverage (UHC) through primary healthcare-led approaches. Quality primary healthcare (PHC) is essential for improving health, social stability, sound national economies, and health security for all countries, rich or poor. Appropriate and competent training for public health professionals at every level, including core primary care providers, is therefore crucial for providing quality PHC, ensuring the effectiveness of the health system and, ultimately, the health of a country’s citizens. The training must embrace enduring strategies through postgraduate, refresher training, and online coaching (telemedicine) to ensure the continued competency of the public health workforce. This chapter addresses each of these issues in greater depth and makes suggestions for improvement and enhancement of health training in developing countries.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"62 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133038275","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0103
W. Chuenkongkaew, S. Wibulpolprasert
Health systems globally are facing many challenges, including major constraints in their workforces: from staff shortages, inappropriate distribution, as well as poor workforce performance and management. One strategy that has been used is ‘task shifting’ to lower cadre professionals or local health workers. Involving local and community health workers (L/CHWs) has been shown to be effective in many countries. This chapter covers the issue of L/CHW training to meet public health needs. As L/CHWs are usually recruited locally with varying background, effective training is therefore very important to ensure that L/CHWs have adequate competency to carry out basic tasks and specific functions to support health professionals in health service delivery. The training programme may cover core public health knowledge and disciplines plus general work competency such as communication and leadership skills. In addition to pre-service training, there should be regular in-service activities to update knowledge and skills and post-training support must be available.
{"title":"Transformative learning for health professional in the twenty-first century for the future health workforce","authors":"W. Chuenkongkaew, S. Wibulpolprasert","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0103","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0103","url":null,"abstract":"Health systems globally are facing many challenges, including major constraints in their workforces: from staff shortages, inappropriate distribution, as well as poor workforce performance and management. One strategy that has been used is ‘task shifting’ to lower cadre professionals or local health workers. Involving local and community health workers (L/CHWs) has been shown to be effective in many countries. This chapter covers the issue of L/CHW training to meet public health needs. As L/CHWs are usually recruited locally with varying background, effective training is therefore very important to ensure that L/CHWs have adequate competency to carry out basic tasks and specific functions to support health professionals in health service delivery. The training programme may cover core public health knowledge and disciplines plus general work competency such as communication and leadership skills. In addition to pre-service training, there should be regular in-service activities to update knowledge and skills and post-training support must be available.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126997246","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0092
C. Bateman, A. Zwi, R. Detels, R. Beaglehole, M. Lansang, M. Gulliford
This chapter provides an overview of the global health dimensions of forced migration and the associated public health challenges. The chapter identifies different categories of forced migrants and examines the main causes of displacement in a global context in which globalization is simultaneously a force for greater integration as well as a contributor to forced migration. Global statistics and legal frameworks relating to forced migrants are examined and formal protections to which refugees and other groups of forced migrants are entitled are identified. The public health situations of forced migrants are varied and often poor, the health situation of different types of forced migrant are outlined and public health responses described. The role of public health professionals in developing a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of forced migration in order to advocate for forced migrant health, and enable forced migrants to speak and be heard, aiding them in transforming their own health outcome are discussed.
{"title":"Forced migrants and other displaced populations","authors":"C. Bateman, A. Zwi, R. Detels, R. Beaglehole, M. Lansang, M. Gulliford","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0092","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0092","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter provides an overview of the global health dimensions of forced migration and the associated public health challenges. The chapter identifies different categories of forced migrants and examines the main causes of displacement in a global context in which globalization is simultaneously a force for greater integration as well as a contributor to forced migration. Global statistics and legal frameworks relating to forced migrants are examined and formal protections to which refugees and other groups of forced migrants are entitled are identified. The public health situations of forced migrants are varied and often poor, the health situation of different types of forced migrant are outlined and public health responses described. The role of public health professionals in developing a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of forced migration in order to advocate for forced migrant health, and enable forced migrants to speak and be heard, aiding them in transforming their own health outcome are discussed.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116814611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0028
S. Iamsirithaworn, P. Thammawijaya, K. Ungchusak
Outbreak investigation is an essential function of public health professionals. It is an opportunity to gain new knowledge of diseases and to discover the weaknesses of current public health practices and systems. Unfortunately, most outbreaks are not investigated. This chapter will present the principles and important points about outbreak investigation. The reader will learn about how to detect outbreaks from routine official surveillance and unofficial sources. The reader can assume oneself as an investigator who has to organize the team, review previous knowledge, and prepare the technical and management aspects, before starting the investigation. The reader will learn about the major ten steps in the investigation, with examples, which starts by confirming the existence of the outbreak, verifying the diagnosis, gathering case information, descriptive epidemiology, formulating and testing the hypothesis when necessary, conducting environmental surveys to supplement epidemiological evidence, providing timely on-site reporting of the findings, with practical recommendations to local and national responsible authorities, and communicating risk to health professional community and public. The reader is reminded about the need to follow-up on the recommendations and continue vigorous surveillance of the health problem. The chapter ends by forecasting more joint international investigations to control emerging diseases and new problems. After reading this chapter, the reader should be clear that outbreak investigation is an interesting, challenging, and important task requiring a competent investigator who combines sound scientific knowledge and good management.
{"title":"Principles of outbreak investigation","authors":"S. Iamsirithaworn, P. Thammawijaya, K. Ungchusak","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0028","url":null,"abstract":"Outbreak investigation is an essential function of public health professionals. It is an opportunity to gain new knowledge of diseases and to discover the weaknesses of current public health practices and systems. Unfortunately, most outbreaks are not investigated. This chapter will present the principles and important points about outbreak investigation. The reader will learn about how to detect outbreaks from routine official surveillance and unofficial sources. The reader can assume oneself as an investigator who has to organize the team, review previous knowledge, and prepare the technical and management aspects, before starting the investigation. The reader will learn about the major ten steps in the investigation, with examples, which starts by confirming the existence of the outbreak, verifying the diagnosis, gathering case information, descriptive epidemiology, formulating and testing the hypothesis when necessary, conducting environmental surveys to supplement epidemiological evidence, providing timely on-site reporting of the findings, with practical recommendations to local and national responsible authorities, and communicating risk to health professional community and public. The reader is reminded about the need to follow-up on the recommendations and continue vigorous surveillance of the health problem. The chapter ends by forecasting more joint international investigations to control emerging diseases and new problems. After reading this chapter, the reader should be clear that outbreak investigation is an interesting, challenging, and important task requiring a competent investigator who combines sound scientific knowledge and good management.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"158 6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125928364","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-11-01DOI: 10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0053
Chien-Jen Chen, S. You
Both host and environmental factors are involved in the development of human diseases. Environmental causes of disease include physical, chemical, biological, behavioural, and social factors. Consistent findings in both observational and interventional studies at aggregate and individual levels provide strong evidence of causation between human diseases and environmental agents. They are illustrated by the elucidation of the pleiotropic health effects of arsenic in drinking water and the multifactorial aetiology of hepatocellular carcinoma caused by viral hepatitis. Molecular and genomic biomarkers are used to explore the time-dependent host–environment interaction in the natural history of human diseases. They include dosimetry of exposure to environmental agents; the health outcomes at molecular, cellular, and histological levels; and the genetic and acquired susceptibility. Risk calculators combining multiple biomarkers are developed for the prediction of long-term disease risk. Global partnerships need to be strengthened to achieve interrelated goals of human health, environmental sustainability, and socioeconomic development.
{"title":"Environmental health methods","authors":"Chien-Jen Chen, S. You","doi":"10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0053","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198816805.003.0053","url":null,"abstract":"Both host and environmental factors are involved in the development of human diseases. Environmental causes of disease include physical, chemical, biological, behavioural, and social factors. Consistent findings in both observational and interventional studies at aggregate and individual levels provide strong evidence of causation between human diseases and environmental agents. They are illustrated by the elucidation of the pleiotropic health effects of arsenic in drinking water and the multifactorial aetiology of hepatocellular carcinoma caused by viral hepatitis. Molecular and genomic biomarkers are used to explore the time-dependent host–environment interaction in the natural history of human diseases. They include dosimetry of exposure to environmental agents; the health outcomes at molecular, cellular, and histological levels; and the genetic and acquired susceptibility. Risk calculators combining multiple biomarkers are developed for the prediction of long-term disease risk. Global partnerships need to be strengthened to achieve interrelated goals of human health, environmental sustainability, and socioeconomic development.","PeriodicalId":206715,"journal":{"name":"Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115629759","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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