Pub Date : 2021-03-01DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986182
Daniel Kasper, Katrin Schulz-Heidorf, K. Schwippert
In this article, we extend Liao’s test for across-group comparisons of the fixed effects from the generalized linear model to the fixed and random effects of the generalized linear mixed model (GLM...
本文将廖的固定效应跨组比较检验从广义线性模型推广到广义线性混合模型的固定效应和随机效应。。。
{"title":"Multiple Group Comparisons of the Fixed and Random Effects From the Generalized Linear Mixed Model","authors":"Daniel Kasper, Katrin Schulz-Heidorf, K. Schwippert","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986182","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986182","url":null,"abstract":"In this article, we extend Liao’s test for across-group comparisons of the fixed effects from the generalized linear model to the fixed and random effects of the generalized linear mixed model (GLM...","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":" ","pages":"004912412098618"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986182","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43869950","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-23DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986178
Scott W. Duxbury
This study shows that residual variation can cause problems related to scaling in exponential random graph models (ERGM). Residual variation is likely to exist when there are unmeasured variables in a model—even those uncorrelated with other predictors—or when the logistic form of the model is inappropriate. As a consequence, coefficients cannot be interpreted as effect sizes or compared between models and homophily coefficients, as well as other interaction coefficients, cannot be interpreted as substantive effects in most ERGM applications. We conduct a series of simulations considering the substantive impact of these issues, revealing that realistic levels of residual variation can have large consequences for ERGM inference. A flexible methodological framework is introduced to overcome these problems. Formal tests of mediation and moderation are also proposed. These methods are applied to revisit the relationship between selective mixing and triadic closure in a large AddHealth school friendship network. Extensions to other classes of statistical work models are discussed.
{"title":"The Problem of Scaling in Exponential Random Graph Models","authors":"Scott W. Duxbury","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986178","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986178","url":null,"abstract":"This study shows that residual variation can cause problems related to scaling in exponential random graph models (ERGM). Residual variation is likely to exist when there are unmeasured variables in a model—even those uncorrelated with other predictors—or when the logistic form of the model is inappropriate. As a consequence, coefficients cannot be interpreted as effect sizes or compared between models and homophily coefficients, as well as other interaction coefficients, cannot be interpreted as substantive effects in most ERGM applications. We conduct a series of simulations considering the substantive impact of these issues, revealing that realistic levels of residual variation can have large consequences for ERGM inference. A flexible methodological framework is introduced to overcome these problems. Formal tests of mediation and moderation are also proposed. These methods are applied to revisit the relationship between selective mixing and triadic closure in a large AddHealth school friendship network. Extensions to other classes of statistical work models are discussed.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":"52 1","pages":"764 - 802"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986178","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42154784","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-22DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986188
B. Rohr, J. Martin
It is common for social scientists to use formal quantitative methods to compare ecological units such as towns, schools, or nations. In many cases, the size of these units in terms of the number o...
{"title":"How (Not) to Control for Population Size in Ecological Analyses","authors":"B. Rohr, J. Martin","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986188","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986188","url":null,"abstract":"It is common for social scientists to use formal quantitative methods to compare ecological units such as towns, schools, or nations. In many cases, the size of these units in terms of the number o...","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":"1 1","pages":"004912412098618"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986188","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42389705","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-10DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986209
Josh Seim
How much should ethnographers involve themselves with the people, places, and processes they study? One answer has become increasingly popular: invert the standard method of participant observation...
{"title":"Participant Observation, Observant Participation, and Hybrid Ethnography","authors":"Josh Seim","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986209","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986209","url":null,"abstract":"How much should ethnographers involve themselves with the people, places, and processes they study? One answer has become increasingly popular: invert the standard method of participant observation...","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":" ","pages":"004912412098620"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986209","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46556112","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-09DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986201
Nuno Oliveira, D. Secchi
Researchers increasingly take advantage of the comparative case design to build theory, but the degree of case dependence is occasionally discussed and theorized. We suggest that the comparative case study design might be subject to an often underappreciated threat—dependence across cases—under certain conditions. Using research on innovation diffusion as an illustration, we explore the role of social linkages across cases when building theory through comparison and contrast between cases. We develop an agent-based simulation, grounded by comparative case research about innovation diffusion, as novel way to study the implications of case dependence in theory building using multiple-case study research. Our simulation results suggest that the degree of case dependence has a nontrivial bearing on innovation diffusion experienced by case entities, specifically when the researcher draws a few case entities operating in a highly interconnected industry. Under these conditions, overlooking the degree of case dependence might weaken newly built theory against commonly held standards of internal validity and external validity in inductive research. We conceptualize the issue of case dependence as a concern about researchers’ bounded rationality. Accordingly, we build on our findings to provide actionable advice aiming to alleviate this concern while being amendable to the variety of approaches to build theory from multiple cases in social sciences.
{"title":"Theory Building, Case Dependence, and Researchers’ Bounded Rationality: An Illustration From Studies of Innovation Diffusion","authors":"Nuno Oliveira, D. Secchi","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986201","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986201","url":null,"abstract":"Researchers increasingly take advantage of the comparative case design to build theory, but the degree of case dependence is occasionally discussed and theorized. We suggest that the comparative case study design might be subject to an often underappreciated threat—dependence across cases—under certain conditions. Using research on innovation diffusion as an illustration, we explore the role of social linkages across cases when building theory through comparison and contrast between cases. We develop an agent-based simulation, grounded by comparative case research about innovation diffusion, as novel way to study the implications of case dependence in theory building using multiple-case study research. Our simulation results suggest that the degree of case dependence has a nontrivial bearing on innovation diffusion experienced by case entities, specifically when the researcher draws a few case entities operating in a highly interconnected industry. Under these conditions, overlooking the degree of case dependence might weaken newly built theory against commonly held standards of internal validity and external validity in inductive research. We conceptualize the issue of case dependence as a concern about researchers’ bounded rationality. Accordingly, we build on our findings to provide actionable advice aiming to alleviate this concern while being amendable to the variety of approaches to build theory from multiple cases in social sciences.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":"52 1","pages":"993 - 1042"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986201","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47987424","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-08DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986191
Matty Lichtenstein, Zawadi Rucks-Ahidiana
With the growing availability of large-scale text-based data sets, there is an increasing need for an accessible and systematic way to analyze qualitative texts. This article introduces and details the contextual text coding (CTC) method as a mixed-methods approach to large-scale qualitative data analysis. The method is particularly useful for complex text, textual data characterized by context-specific meanings and a lack of consistent terminology. CTC provides an alternative to current approaches to analyzing large textual data sets, specifically computational text analysis and hand coding, neither of which capture both the qualitative and quantitative analytical potential of large-scale textual data sets. Building on hand coding techniques and systematic sampling methods, CTC provides a clear six-step process to produce both quantitative and qualitative analyses of large-scale complex textual data sources. This article includes two examples, using projects focusing on journal and interview data, respectively, to illustrate the method’s versatility.
{"title":"Contextual Text Coding: A Mixed-methods Approach for Large-scale Textual Data","authors":"Matty Lichtenstein, Zawadi Rucks-Ahidiana","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986191","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986191","url":null,"abstract":"With the growing availability of large-scale text-based data sets, there is an increasing need for an accessible and systematic way to analyze qualitative texts. This article introduces and details the contextual text coding (CTC) method as a mixed-methods approach to large-scale qualitative data analysis. The method is particularly useful for complex text, textual data characterized by context-specific meanings and a lack of consistent terminology. CTC provides an alternative to current approaches to analyzing large textual data sets, specifically computational text analysis and hand coding, neither of which capture both the qualitative and quantitative analytical potential of large-scale textual data sets. Building on hand coding techniques and systematic sampling methods, CTC provides a clear six-step process to produce both quantitative and qualitative analyses of large-scale complex textual data sources. This article includes two examples, using projects focusing on journal and interview data, respectively, to illustrate the method’s versatility.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":"52 1","pages":"606 - 641"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986191","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45725682","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-08DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986206
S. Hertog
In mixed methods approaches, statistical models are used to identify “nested” cases for intensive, small-n investigation for a range of purposes, including notably the examination of causal mechanisms. This article shows that under a commonsense interpretation of causal effects, large-n models allow no reliable conclusions about effect sizes in individual cases—even if we choose “onlier” cases as is usually suggested. Contrary to established practice, we show that choosing “reinforcing” outlier cases—where outcomes are stronger than predicted in the statistical model—is appropriate for testing preexisting hypotheses on causal mechanisms, as this reduces the risk of false negatives. When investigating mechanisms inductively, researchers face a choice between “onlier” and reinforcing outlier cases that represents a trade-off between false negatives and false positives. We demonstrate that the inferential power of nested research designs can be much increased through paired comparisons of cases. More generally, this article provides a new conceptual framework for understanding the limits to and conditions for causal generalization from case studies.
{"title":"Taking Causal Heterogeneity Seriously: Implications for Case Choice and Case Study-Based Generalizations","authors":"S. Hertog","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986206","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986206","url":null,"abstract":"In mixed methods approaches, statistical models are used to identify “nested” cases for intensive, small-n investigation for a range of purposes, including notably the examination of causal mechanisms. This article shows that under a commonsense interpretation of causal effects, large-n models allow no reliable conclusions about effect sizes in individual cases—even if we choose “onlier” cases as is usually suggested. Contrary to established practice, we show that choosing “reinforcing” outlier cases—where outcomes are stronger than predicted in the statistical model—is appropriate for testing preexisting hypotheses on causal mechanisms, as this reduces the risk of false negatives. When investigating mechanisms inductively, researchers face a choice between “onlier” and reinforcing outlier cases that represents a trade-off between false negatives and false positives. We demonstrate that the inferential power of nested research designs can be much increased through paired comparisons of cases. More generally, this article provides a new conceptual framework for understanding the limits to and conditions for causal generalization from case studies.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":"52 1","pages":"1456 - 1492"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986206","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42545218","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-05DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986196
Francesco Veri
This article aims to clarify fundamental aspects of the process of assigning fuzzy scores to conditions based on family resemblance (FR) structures by considering prototype and set theories. Prototype theory and set theory consider FR structures from two different angles. Specifically, set theory links the conceptualization of FR to the idea of sufficient and INUS (Insufficient but Necessary part of a condition, which is itself Unnecessary but Sufficient for the result) sets. In contrast, concept membership in prototype theory is strictly linked to the notion of similarity (or resemblance) in relation to the prototype, which is the anchor of the ideational content of the concept. After an introductive section where I elucidate set-theoretic and prototypical aspects of concept formation, I individuate the axiomatic properties that identify the principles of transforming FR structures into fuzzy sets. Finally, I propose an algorithm based on the power mean that is able to operationalize FR structures considering both set-theoretic and prototype theory perspectives.
{"title":"Transforming Family Resemblance Concepts into Fuzzy Sets","authors":"Francesco Veri","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986196","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986196","url":null,"abstract":"This article aims to clarify fundamental aspects of the process of assigning fuzzy scores to conditions based on family resemblance (FR) structures by considering prototype and set theories. Prototype theory and set theory consider FR structures from two different angles. Specifically, set theory links the conceptualization of FR to the idea of sufficient and INUS (Insufficient but Necessary part of a condition, which is itself Unnecessary but Sufficient for the result) sets. In contrast, concept membership in prototype theory is strictly linked to the notion of similarity (or resemblance) in relation to the prototype, which is the anchor of the ideational content of the concept. After an introductive section where I elucidate set-theoretic and prototypical aspects of concept formation, I individuate the axiomatic properties that identify the principles of transforming FR structures into fuzzy sets. Finally, I propose an algorithm based on the power mean that is able to operationalize FR structures considering both set-theoretic and prototype theory perspectives.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":"52 1","pages":"356 - 388"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986196","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41553469","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The linear dependence of age, period, and birth cohort is a challenge for the analysis of social change. With either repeated cross-sectional data or conventional panel data, raw change cannot be decomposed into over-time differences that are attributable to the effects of common experiences of alternative birth cohorts, features of the periods under observation, and the cumulation of lifecourse aging. This article proposes a rolling panel model for cohort, period, and aging effects, suggested by and tuned to the treble panel data collected for the General Social Survey (GSS) from 2006 through 2014. While the model does not offer a general solution for the identification of the classical age-period-cohort (APC) accounting model, it yields warranted interpretations under plausible assumptions that are reasonable for many outcomes of interest. In particular, if aging effects can be assumed to be invariant over the course of an observation interval, and if separate panel samples of the full age distribution overlap within the same observation interval, then period and aging effects can be parameterized and interpreted separately, adjusted for cohort differences that pulse through the same observation interval. The estimated cohort effects during the observation interval are then interpretable as effects during the observation interval of entangled period and cumulated aging differences from before the observation interval.
{"title":"A Rolling Panel Model of Cohort, Period, and Aging Effects for the Analysis of the General Social Survey","authors":"S. L. Morgan, Jiwon Lee","doi":"10.31235/osf.io/m582q","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/m582q","url":null,"abstract":"The linear dependence of age, period, and birth cohort is a challenge for the analysis of social change. With either repeated cross-sectional data or conventional panel data, raw change cannot be decomposed into over-time differences that are attributable to the effects of common experiences of alternative birth cohorts, features of the periods under observation, and the cumulation of lifecourse aging. This article proposes a rolling panel model for cohort, period, and aging effects, suggested by and tuned to the treble panel data collected for the General Social Survey (GSS) from 2006 through 2014. While the model does not offer a general solution for the identification of the classical age-period-cohort (APC) accounting model, it yields warranted interpretations under plausible assumptions that are reasonable for many outcomes of interest. In particular, if aging effects can be assumed to be invariant over the course of an observation interval, and if separate panel samples of the full age distribution overlap within the same observation interval, then period and aging effects can be parameterized and interpreted separately, adjusted for cohort differences that pulse through the same observation interval. The estimated cohort effects during the observation interval are then interpretable as effects during the observation interval of entangled period and cumulated aging differences from before the observation interval.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46948853","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-02-04DOI: 10.1177/0049124120986199
Angelo Moretti, A. Whitworth
Spatial microsimulation encompasses a range of alternative methodological approaches for the small area estimation (SAE) of target population parameters from sample survey data down to target small areas in contexts where such data are desired but not otherwise available. Although widely used, an enduring limitation of spatial microsimulation SAE approaches is their current inability to deliver reliable measures of uncertainty—and hence confidence intervals—around the small area estimates produced. In this article, we overcome this key limitation via the development of a measure of uncertainty that takes into account both variance and bias, that is, the mean squared error. This new approach is evaluated via a simulation study and demonstrated in a practical application using European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions data to explore income levels across Italian municipalities. Evaluations show that the approach proposed delivers accurate estimates of uncertainty and is robust to nonnormal distributions. The approach provides a significant development to widely used spatial microsimulation SAE techniques.
{"title":"Estimating the Uncertainty of a Small Area Estimator Based on a Microsimulation Approach","authors":"Angelo Moretti, A. Whitworth","doi":"10.1177/0049124120986199","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986199","url":null,"abstract":"Spatial microsimulation encompasses a range of alternative methodological approaches for the small area estimation (SAE) of target population parameters from sample survey data down to target small areas in contexts where such data are desired but not otherwise available. Although widely used, an enduring limitation of spatial microsimulation SAE approaches is their current inability to deliver reliable measures of uncertainty—and hence confidence intervals—around the small area estimates produced. In this article, we overcome this key limitation via the development of a measure of uncertainty that takes into account both variance and bias, that is, the mean squared error. This new approach is evaluated via a simulation study and demonstrated in a practical application using European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions data to explore income levels across Italian municipalities. Evaluations show that the approach proposed delivers accurate estimates of uncertainty and is robust to nonnormal distributions. The approach provides a significant development to widely used spatial microsimulation SAE techniques.","PeriodicalId":21849,"journal":{"name":"Sociological Methods & Research","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0049124120986199","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44061974","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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