Food Policy最新文献_第8页

Short food supply chains: The influence of outlet and accessibility on farmer and consumer preferences. Two discrete choice experiments 短食品供应链：销售点和可达性对农民和消费者偏好的影响。两个离散选择实验

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102763

Camille Horvath , Martin Koning , Gwenaëlle Raton , François Combes

In France, Short Food Supply Chains (SFSCs) operate under specific regulatory frameworks, involving either direct sales or transactions with no more than one intermediary. SFSCs are of particular interest to local communities as they offer a potential pathway to enhancing food security through the local provisioning of urban areas. This study investigates both consumers’ and farmers’ preferences for different SFSC outlets. Harmonized discrete choice experiments (DCEs) were conducted in 2022 in France, involving 1,021 consumers and 154 market gardeners, focusing on the consumption and sale of fresh vegetables. The objective is to examine the consistency and divergence between farmers’ and consumers’ choices among different outlets and attributes. The results indicate that consumers are less sensitive to the type of outlet than farmers. For consumers, relational proximity—direct interaction with farmers—emerges as a key factor, whereas farmers value this proximity only when it does not entail additional logistical burdens. Furthermore, mutual aid among farmers is highly appreciated, with farmers willing to lower prices when collaborating on tasks such as delivery. The findings suggest that travel time and outlet accessibility are critical, with longer travel times negatively affecting consumers more than farmers. These insights provide valuable guidance for enhancing SFSCs development, suggesting that policymakers should prioritize improving outlet accessibility, promoting farmer collaboration, and addressing logistical costs to better align supply with demand.

在法国，"短食品供应链"（SFSCs）在特定的监管框架下运作，涉及直接销售或不超过一个中间商的交易。当地社区对短食品供应链特别感兴趣，因为它提供了一条通过在当地供应城市地区食品来加强食品安全的潜在途径。本研究调查了消费者和农民对不同自给自足服务中心销售渠道的偏好。2022 年在法国进行了统一的离散选择实验（DCEs），涉及 1021 名消费者和 154 名市场园丁，重点关注新鲜蔬菜的消费和销售。目的是研究农民和消费者对不同销售点和属性的选择的一致性和差异性。结果表明，与农民相比，消费者对销售点类型的敏感度较低。对消费者而言，与农民直接互动的关系接近性是一个关键因素，而农民只有在不增加物流负担的情况下才重视这种接近性。此外，农民之间的互助也备受赞赏，农民愿意在合作完成交货等任务时降低价格。研究结果表明，旅行时间和销售点的可及性至关重要，较长的旅行时间对消费者的负面影响大于对农民的负面影响。这些见解为促进自给自足供应链的发展提供了宝贵的指导，建议政策制定者应优先考虑改善销售点的可达性、促进农民合作以及解决物流成本问题，从而更好地实现供需平衡。

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引用次数: 0

Perspectives on high U.S. retail food prices during 2020–2022 2020-2022 年美国食品零售价格高企的前景展望

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102765

Metin Çakır , Ana M. Pérez , Shawn Arita , Joseph Cooper , Rebecca Nemec Boehm

The recent food price inflation has sparked lively debates globally in media accounts, policy circles, and academics. A large body of literature has emerged across several fields of economics. However, each study typically focuses on a single or subset of causes, indicating that factors contributing to the recent food price inflation are broadly ranging and complex. This paper provides a comprehensive synthesis of what we learned about the major causes of high food prices in 2020–2022 in the United States and how they differ from those identified in prior food price hikes during the Great Recession of 2008. To provide context, we first discuss stylized facts about the U.S. food industry structure and previous empirical evidence on economy-wide drivers of high food prices. We then survey the literature on drivers of price surges observed since 2020. We document that the overall price surge, including food prices, in 2020–2022 has some unique factors primarily stemming from the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic—specifically, U.S. fiscal support and money supply growth are the leading factors. Like in 2008, high commodity prices played a significant role in recent food price hikes—although their impacts might not be as large as in 2008. Inflation expectations due to high oil prices were a significant factor in 2008 but were not found to be an essential cause of the recent price hikes. Furthermore, the evidence on the role of factors directly related to retailers’ conduct, such as seller’s inflation or price gouging, is mixed. Considering our synthesis, we identify important gaps where future research is needed and policy priorities.

最近的粮食价格上涨引发了全球媒体、政策界和学术界的热烈讨论。经济学的多个领域都出现了大量文献。然而，每项研究通常只关注单一或部分原因，这表明导致近期粮食价格上涨的因素广泛而复杂。本文全面综述了我们所了解到的 2020-2022 年美国食品价格高涨的主要原因，以及这些原因与 2008 年经济大衰退期间食品价格上涨的原因有何不同。为了提供背景信息，我们首先讨论了有关美国食品产业结构的典型事实，以及以往有关整个经济范围内食品价格高涨驱动因素的经验证据。然后，我们对 2020 年以来观察到的价格飙升驱动因素的文献进行了调查。我们发现，2020-2022 年包括食品价格在内的整体价格飙升有一些独特的因素，主要源于 COVID-19 大流行病的后果--具体来说，美国的财政支持和货币供应增长是主导因素。与 2008 年一样，大宗商品价格高企在近期食品价格上涨中发挥了重要作用--尽管其影响可能没有 2008 年那么大。高油价导致的通胀预期是 2008 年的一个重要因素，但并未被认为是近期价格上涨的根本原因。此外，关于与零售商行为直接相关的因素（如卖方通胀或价格欺诈）的作用，证据不一。考虑到我们的综述，我们确定了未来需要研究的重要空白点和政策优先事项。

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引用次数: 0

Food policy coherence in local government: Who does what and why? 地方政府的粮食政策一致性：谁在做什么，为什么？

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102740

Rob Kidd, Christian Reynolds

Background

In the UK, food policy is often made by national government, but typically interpreted and implemented by councils. This research explores which local government functions are involved in food policy, how they work together and how coherent their policy positions are. It builds on earlier work to map the food policy actors at national government level and to understand local government’s many functions.

Methods

The researchers conducted a literature review using search terms including ‘local authority’, ‘local government’, ‘food’ and ‘food policy’ across two academic databases: Scopus and Web of Science, plus results from Food Policy on Science Direct. The total number of papers identified and analysed was 99. They then conducted 30 semi-structured interviews with employees of local authorities and representative bodies covering the various functions of local government. They analysed the interviews using NVivo to highlight the themes, which included priority food policy issues for councils; local government functions and how they relate to each other; external stakeholders; and success factors.

Findings

Despite the high degree of complexity, fragmentation and granularity in local government, there appears to be a high degree of food policy coherence within and between individual councils. However, there is policy incoherence between central and local government, where a lack of national strategy and piecemeal approach to devolution have hindered councils’ efforts to improve the food system. Some functions of councils are particularly ‘joined up’, with good multi-function and multi-agency working arrangements in public health, trading standards, environmental health, economic development, planning and sustainability. Other functions, notably adult social care, markets and emergency planning, have been harder to engage; interview responses suggest food policy is not a priority for these functions.

Conclusions

For food policy interventions in local government to be successful, they need to be accompanied by adequate long-term funding; a coalition of support; and to be seen as a priority by relevant stakeholders. Partnership arrangements provide good opportunities to make use of existing networks. Councils could do more to increase joint working between neighbouring councils.

背景在英国，食品政策通常由国家政府制定，但通常由议会解释和执行。本研究探讨了哪些地方政府职能参与了粮食政策，它们是如何合作的，以及它们的政策立场有多一致。研究方法研究人员利用两个学术数据库中的 "地方当局"、"地方政府"、"食品 "和 "食品政策 "等检索词进行了文献综述：Scopus 和 Web of Science，以及 Science Direct 上 Food Policy 的结果。然后，他们与地方政府雇员和地方政府各职能部门的代表机构进行了 30 次半结构式访谈。他们使用 NVivo 对访谈进行了分析，以突出主题，其中包括议会优先考虑的粮食政策问题；地方政府职能及其相互关系；外部利益相关者；以及成功因素。然而，中央政府和地方政府之间的政策并不一致，缺乏国家战略和零敲碎打的权力下放方法阻碍了议会改善粮食系统的努力。议会的一些职能特别 "联合"，在公共卫生、贸易标准、环境卫生、经济发展、规划和可持续发展等方面都有良好的多功能和多机构工作安排。其他职能部门，尤其是成人社会关怀、市场和应急规划部门，则更难参与其中；访谈结果表明，粮食政策并不是这些职能部门的优先事项。伙伴关系安排为利用现有网络提供了良机。议会可以采取更多措施，加强相邻议会之间的联合工作。

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引用次数: 0

Examining purchasing strategies in public food procurement: Integrating sustainability, nutrition, and health in Spanish school meals and social care centres 研究公共食品采购中的采购策略：西班牙学校膳食和社会护理中心的可持续性、营养和健康一体化

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102742

Daniel Gaitán-Cremaschi , Diego Valbuena

Sustainable Public Food Procurement (SPFP) is pivotal in advancing sustainable and healthier food systems. However, practical gaps persist in understanding how policies function at the local implementation. This study addresses these gaps by analysing 22 SPFP contracts for school meals and social care centres in Spain, focusing on implementation while contextualizing findings within the broader policy cycle. This research categorizes SPFP criteria in tenders and evaluate their potential for actionability across sustainability, nutrition, & health dimensions. It also explores how these criteria are combined into purchasing strategies to achieve simultaneous or individual goals. Key findings reveal a strong use of product quality criteria, particularly organic foods, supported by policy and ease of implementation. However, non-ambitious targets, market constraints and procurement officers’ limited knowledge hinder progress. The study highlights significant adoption of nutritional & health criteria, though non-mandatory policies and varying regional targets impede consistent implementation and reveal gaps in promoting healthy and sustainable dietary practices. Environmental criteria are widely used signalling policy priorities within the EU policy framework. In contrast, proximity and social criteria are underutilized due to regulatory constraints and insufficient guidance. Despite these challenges, innovative local procurement strategies are utilized to overcome barriers. At the strategy level, the study reveals diverse approaches to SPFP implementation, highlighting adaptability but underscoring the need for flexible frameworks that accommodate local variations while aligning with broader EU or national goals. This research advocates for a holistic approach to SPFP that addresses both the practical challenges of implementation and the systemic issues present in the earlier stages of policy development.

可持续公共粮食采购（SPFP）在推进可持续和更健康的粮食系统方面至关重要。然而，在了解政策如何在地方实施中发挥作用方面仍存在实际差距。本研究通过分析西班牙学校膳食和社会护理中心的 22 份 SPFP 合同来弥补这些差距，重点关注执行情况，同时将研究结果纳入更广泛的政策周期中。本研究对招标中的 SPFP 标准进行了分类，并评估了其在可持续性、营养、& 健康等方面的可操作性潜力。研究还探讨了如何将这些标准结合到采购战略中，以实现同时或单独的目标。主要研究结果表明，在政策支持和易于实施的情况下，产品质量标准，尤其是有机食品标准得到了广泛应用。然而，目标不明确、市场限制和采购人员知识有限阻碍了进展。研究强调了营养和ampamp 的大量采用；健康标准，尽管非强制性政策和不同的地区目标阻碍了一致的实施，并揭示了在促进健康和可持续饮食习惯方面的差距。在欧盟政策框架内，环境标准被广泛采用，标志着政策的优先次序。相比之下，由于监管限制和指导不足，邻近性和社会标准未得到充分利用。尽管存在这些挑战，创新的本地采购战略仍被用来克服障碍。在战略层面，研究揭示了实施 SPFP 的不同方法，突出了适应性，但强调需要灵活的框架，以适应当地的差异，同时与更广泛的欧盟或国家目标保持一致。本研究主张对 SPFP 采取整体方法，既要解决实施过程中的实际挑战，又要解决政策制定早期阶段存在的系统性问题。

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引用次数: 0

The transition incentive program and women farmers in the USA 美国的过渡激励计划和女农民

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102739

Valentina Hartarska , Eugene Adjei , Denis Nadolnyak

The US Department of Agriculture made women farmers eligible for the Transition Incentive Program (TIP) to improve their access to farmland. TIP is a federal program that transfers near-expiring lands in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) back to agricultural use while maintaining established conservation practices. It offers incentives to landowners and requires recipients to adhere to specific conservation plans on the acquired land. Since women have shown a stronger interest in sustainable practices and face more limited access to land, TIP has the potential to enhance women’s presence in farming. However, the program’s effectiveness has not been evaluated.

In this paper, we analyze county-level data from the 2017 Census of Agriculture and data on actual TIP use to provide the first estimates of the causal effect of TIP on the presence of women farmers. We use three matching techniques – nearest neighbor, kernel nearest neighbor, and inverse probability weighting – and find a small but statistically significant positive effect. While a comparison of the share of women farmers in non-matched counties with and without TIP-enrolled lands shows that counties with TIP use have fewer women farmers, the matched results indicate that utilizing TIP increased the proportion of women farmers by one percent, or about 805 women, in the study region. The Rosenbaum bounds sensitivity test shows that the results are stable. We conclude that TIP is marginally effective at increasing the number of women in agriculture.

美国农业部让女性农民有资格参与过渡激励计划 (TIP)，以改善她们获得农田的机会。过渡激励计划是一项联邦计划，旨在将保护储备计划（CRP）中即将到期的土地转回农业用途，同时保持既定的保护措施。该计划为土地所有者提供激励措施，并要求接受者在收购的土地上遵守特定的保护计划。由于妇女对可持续实践表现出更浓厚的兴趣，且获得土地的机会更为有限，因此 TIP 有可能提高妇女在农业中的地位。在本文中，我们分析了 2017 年农业普查的县级数据和 TIP 的实际使用数据，首次估算了 TIP 对女性农民存在的因果效应。我们使用了三种匹配技术--最近邻、内核最近邻和反概率加权--发现了微小但在统计上显著的积极影响。对有和没有使用 TIP 的非匹配县的女农民比例进行比较后发现，使用 TIP 的县的女农民人数较少，但匹配结果表明，使用 TIP 使研究地区的女农民比例增加了 1%，即增加了约 805 名妇女。罗森鲍姆边界敏感性测试表明，结果是稳定的。我们的结论是，TIP 在增加农业女性人数方面略有成效。

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引用次数: 0

Potential implications of trade policy shifts after the 2024 U.S. presidential election for the agri-food sector 2024 年美国总统大选后贸易政策转变对农业食品行业的潜在影响

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102741

Sandro Steinbach, Yasin Yildirim, Carlos Zurita

引用次数: 0

Diet and disease: Examining the seasonal determinants of children’s health in Senegal 饮食与疾病：研究塞内加尔儿童健康的季节性决定因素

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102735

Karan S. Shakya , Leah E.M. Bevis , Andrew L. Thorne-Lyman

Seasonal changes in food availability and disease incidence put pressure on children’s health in Sub-Sahara Africa. Using year-round survey data from Senegal, we examine how seasonality in key health inputs (dietary diversity, diarrhea, and fever) helps predict seasonality in children’s health (weight-for-height z-score). We first parameterize seasonal variation in health and health inputs using second-order trigonometric polynomials, then decompose the seasonal curve of children’s health into component parts explained by seasonality in each health input. We find that lagged seasonality in disease incidence predicts seasonality in child health, while seasonality in dietary diversity does not — likely because diets are poor in Senegal even during the most food-plentiful part of the year. We also observe noticeable heterogeneity in the way these health inputs predict children’s health across different wealth levels and regions.

食物供应和疾病发生率的季节性变化给撒哈拉以南非洲地区的儿童健康带来了压力。利用塞内加尔的全年调查数据，我们研究了主要健康投入（饮食多样性、腹泻和发烧）的季节性如何帮助预测儿童健康的季节性（体重身高 Z 值）。我们首先使用二阶三角多项式对健康和健康投入的季节性变化进行参数化，然后将儿童健康的季节性曲线分解为由各健康投入的季节性所解释的组成部分。我们发现，疾病发病率的滞后季节性可以预测儿童健康的季节性，而饮食多样性的季节性却不能预测儿童健康的季节性--这可能是因为塞内加尔即使在一年中食物最丰富的时期，饮食也很贫乏。我们还观察到，在不同的财富水平和地区，这些健康投入对儿童健康的预测方式存在明显的异质性。

引用次数: 0

Insuring consumption against Shocks: The role of informal savings in Nigeria 使消费免受冲击：尼日利亚非正规储蓄的作用

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102737

Arouna Kouandou , Inès Pérolde Zeh

In most low-income countries, households are exposed to a plethora of economic shocks with welfare-reducing consequences. In the absence of well-functioning financial markets, most households rely on informal savings through credit clubs/groups to reduce their vulnerability to these shocks. In this paper, we examine the extent to which participation in informal savings associations affects the ability of households to smooth their consumption in the face of both idiosyncratic and covariate shocks. Using a difference-in-difference fixed effects specification on the Nigerian household-level panel that spans four waves over eight years, with data collected in 2010/2011, 2012/2013, 2015/2016 and 2018/2019, we documented heterogenous effects of informal savings. The results suggest that informal savings help households to hedge consumption against rainfall shocks. We find heterogeneous effects of informal savings in insuring consumption against idiosyncratic shocks, depending on whether households live in urban or rural areas. These results provide new insights into the role of informal financial arrangements in sub-Saharan Africa.

在大多数低收入国家，家庭面临着大量的经济冲击，其后果会降低福利。在缺乏运作良好的金融市场的情况下，大多数家庭依赖于通过信贷俱乐部/小组进行非正式储蓄，以降低他们在这些冲击面前的脆弱性。在本文中，我们研究了参与非正规储蓄协会在多大程度上影响了家庭在面对特异性和共变量冲击时平滑消费的能力。我们对尼日利亚家庭层面的面板数据进行了差分固定效应规格化，数据收集于 2010/2011、2012/2013、2015/2016 和 2018/2019 年，时间跨度为八年四波。结果表明，非正规储蓄有助于家庭对冲降雨冲击对消费的影响。我们发现，非正规储蓄在保护消费免受特异性冲击方面具有不同的效果，这取决于家庭是生活在城市还是农村地区。这些结果为了解撒哈拉以南非洲非正规金融安排的作用提供了新的视角。

引用次数: 0

Do color-coded Nutrition Facts Panels nudge the use of nutrition information? 彩色编码的营养成分表是否会促进营养信息的使用？

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-11 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102730

Xuqi Chen , Zhifeng Gao , Lisa House , Yujuan Gao

Nutrition Facts labels or Nutrition Facts Panel(s) (NFP) are a critical channel for communicating food nutrition information to consumers. A fundamental question is how to help consumers effectively understand and use the label without missing important information. This paper introduces a color-coded NFP and investigates its impacts on information search and consumer behavior, such as attention to information, food choice, and food health perception. Results show that the color-coded NFP attracts more attention than a black-and-white NFP, specifically for nutrients such as fat, sodium, and sugars, which should be limited. Additionally, the color-coded NFP made it easier for consumers to make food purchase decisions and led consumers to make healthier choices for some products (e.g., chips). Finally, the color-coded NFP reduces the time needed and contributes to a more accurate evaluation of the products’ healthiness in the case of chips, reducing the information processing costs and increasing the utilization of information. Our research demonstrates that the color-coded NFP is more attractive, efficient, and effective in delivering nutrition information and contributes to a healthier decision for some products (e.g., chips) than the traditional NFP.

营养成分标签或营养成分面板（NFP）是向消费者传达食品营养信息的重要渠道。一个基本问题是如何帮助消费者有效地理解和使用标签，同时又不遗漏重要信息。本文介绍了彩色编码 NFP，并研究了它对信息搜索和消费者行为的影响，如对信息的关注、食品选择和食品健康认知。结果表明，彩色编码的营养信息提示符比黑白编码的营养信息提示符更能吸引消费者的注意，特别是对脂肪、钠和糖等营养成分的注意，因为这些营养成分是应该限制的。此外，色标国家食品标签使消费者更容易做出购买食品的决定，并引导消费者对某些产品（如薯片）做出更健康的选择。最后，就薯片而言，色标 NFP 减少了所需时间，有助于更准确地评估产品的健康程度，降低了信息处理成本，提高了信息利用率。我们的研究表明，与传统的营养信息提示器相比，彩色编码营养信息提示器在提供营养信息方面更具吸引力、效率更高、效果更好，有助于人们对某些产品（如薯片）做出更健康的决定。

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引用次数: 0

Trans-Governance and Food Systems (Tr-GaF) for food policy integration: A case study of the Australian food policy landscape 跨治理和粮食系统（Tr-GaF）促进粮食政策整合：澳大利亚粮食政策景观案例研究

IF 6.8 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2024.102736

Lijun Summerhayes , Douglas Baker

Food policy integration is critical for sustainability as urban food policies become a new norm in the policy agenda. Yet, little research demonstrates how food policies are integrated with food systems and across governance to achieve urban sustainability. This paper presents the Trans-Governance and Food Systems (Tr-GaF) framework for food policy integration developed to evaluate the Australian food policy landscape. The analysis of 102 food-relevant policy documents sourced from multiple government institutions in Queensland, Western Australia, and Victoria identifies limited food policy integration in Australia, with little attention paid to food-related urban planning. Policy misalignments arise in the agrifood economy, health and well-being, and environment and ecology domains, with horizontal and vertical fragmentation across governance levels and sectors. Inadequate integration with food systems further jeopardises the efficiency of urban food supply chains and consumption activities. These three prominent issues collectively stifle urban sustainability by economically restraining food supply chain actors’ ability to innovate and compete. While environmental imbalance worsens, urbanites inevitably face barriers to maintaining health and social well-being. Tr-GaF provides an evidenced-based framework for policymakers to evaluate and integrate food policies anchored in food systems governed by collaborative multi-scalar government agencies, institutions, food industries, and civil society. In doing so, urban development can sustainably evolve economically, socially, and environmentally.

随着城市粮食政策成为政策议程中的新规范，粮食政策整合对可持续性至关重要。然而，很少有研究表明粮食政策如何与粮食系统和跨治理相结合，以实现城市的可持续性。本文介绍了跨治理与粮食系统（Tr-GaF）粮食政策整合框架，该框架是为评估澳大利亚粮食政策状况而开发的。通过对来自昆士兰州、西澳大利亚州和维多利亚州多个政府机构的 102 份与食品相关的政策文件进行分析，发现澳大利亚的食品政策整合程度有限，与食品相关的城市规划很少受到关注。在农粮经济、健康与福利、环境与生态领域出现了政策错位，各治理层级和部门之间出现了横向和纵向的割裂。与粮食系统的整合不足进一步损害了城市粮食供应链和消费活动的效率。这三个突出问题在经济上限制了食品供应链参与者的创新和竞争能力，从而共同扼杀了城市的可持续发展。在环境失衡恶化的同时，城市居民在保持健康和社会福祉方面也不可避免地面临障碍。Tr-GaF 为政策制定者提供了一个以事实为基础的框架，用于评估和整合粮食政策，这些政策立足于由多级政府部门、机构、粮食行业和民间社会共同管理的粮食系统。这样，城市发展就能在经济、社会和环境方面实现可持续发展。

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引用次数: 0