Trees, Forests and People最新文献

{"title":"From structural diversity measures to ecosystem complexity: Experiments for deriving aggregated complexity indices","authors":"Sebas de Smedt,&nbsp;Norul Sobuj,&nbsp;Arne Pommerening","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101165","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101165","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In times where biodiversity is globally under much pressure, effective monitoring of ecosystems is of great importance. As plants and particularly trees tend to shape the physical environment of ecosystems, indicators based on the structural complexity of plant communities are frequently used as surrogates for direct measures of biodiversity. A multitude of such quantitative diversity indicators exist and when considering multiple ecosystem services there is often the need to aggregate them in a single complexity index. We quantified the effects of four statistical techniques of aggregating contributing indices from three overarching tenets of α-diversity, i.e. location (or dispersion) diversity, size and species diversity. In addition we experimentally studied the influence of four different weights assigned to the contributing diversity measures. Overall the differences between the weights and aggregation methods used were comparatively small. Inverse correlation weights combined with arithmetic-geometric aggregation turned out to be the best choice for obtaining a clear complexity gradient for our study data from the boreal forest in Northern Sweden. In our analysis, it proved useful to rely on a small pool of global reference data with a strong structural gradient which served as contrasts and training data in addition to the data of our study plots. The application of random weights as statistical references was very helpful for understanding how weighting and index aggregation works. Our index-aggregation results suggested that the nine Swedish forest plots were at the lower end of global complexity and differed comparatively little in terms of forest structure.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101165"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146037521","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dynamics and determinants of forest cover changes in the inner Congo basin","authors":"Lisette Mangaza ,&nbsp;Germain Batsi ,&nbsp;Adrien Peroches ,&nbsp;Claire Masson ,&nbsp;Denis Jean Sonwa ,&nbsp;Simon Lhoest ,&nbsp;Jean-Remy Makana ,&nbsp;Wannes Hubau ,&nbsp;Philipe Lejeune ,&nbsp;Adeline Fayolle","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101126","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101126","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Massive deforestation and forest degradation have been observed in the inner Congo basin in the last decades. While agricultural expansion onto forest land is widely recognized as the main driver of deforestation, local dynamics and social drivers remain understudied. This study investigates both the forest cover dynamics monitored from satellite products and the agricultural practices from household interviews across the Tshopo, the largest province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). We combined satellite-based forest cover data (Tropical Moist Forest dataset, 1990–2023) with household surveys (<em>n</em> = 850) around Kisangani, the provincial capital, and up to 150 km along the six main road axes. Between 1990 and 2023, 9.7 % of mature tropical moist forest — corresponding to 1905,800 ha — was lost across the Tshopo province, being deforested, degraded, or disturbed. Deforestation accelerated since 2010, and the spatial pattern indicates urban expansion, and agricultural encroachment into forests. Household interviews confirm that small-scale farming is the dominant agricultural system in the region (94 % of respondents), with fields mostly installed on fallow land. The food crops such as cassava, rice, maize and bananas are predominant and perennial crops such as oil palms, cocoa and coffee are less common. Geographical and production factors, namely proximity to Kisangani city and household economic capital, are the main determinants of agricultural practices in the Tshopo. Although individual small-scale farming has a limited impact on forest cover (only 11 % of food crop fields and 8 % of perennial crop plantations are established on mature forest lands), the cumulative effect of seasonal land conversion is substantial. Household-level deforestation (349 ha per cropping season for 850 households) extrapolated to approximately 195,000 ha of mature forest cleared annually across the province. Given the high level of human impact and poverty in the region, it is crucial to promote sustainable agricultural practices that increase productivity without encroaching on mature forests, considering the diversity of producer profiles, in a context of high instability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101126"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938736","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring behavioral determinants of sustainable agricultural practices adoption in Morocco: Evidence from PLS-SEM","authors":"Soufiane Bouyghrissi ,&nbsp;Maha Khanniba ,&nbsp;Hanaa Touloub ,&nbsp;Mohamed Torra ,&nbsp;Omar Kharbouch","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101143","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101143","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the drivers of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) adoption in Morocco by using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) on survey data from 402 farmers. The model examines the effects of attitudes (AT), subjective norms (SN), perceived behavioral control (PBC), and knowledge (KN) on actual adoption behavior. The results show that attitude is the strongest positive predictor of SAP adoption, while knowledge contributes indirectly by shaping attitudes. Subjective norms also influence adoption, although their effect is modest and negative, suggesting that farmers may perceive caution or mixed messages regarding SAP use. Perceived behavioral control does not significantly affect adoption in this context.</div><div>The findings highlight the importance of psychological and social processes in shaping farmers’ decisions and demonstrate that technical knowledge alone is insufficient to drive behavioral change. Clear policy implications emerge from this analysis. Extension programs should prioritize strengthening positive attitudes by showcasing local demonstrations, communicating tangible benefits, and offering risk-reducing incentives. Farmer training initiatives should integrate social learning mechanisms, such as peer-to-peer exchanges and cooperative-based activities, to leverage community influence and ensure equitable access to information. Policymakers seeking to scale SAP uptake should therefore invest in both informational outreach and social infrastructure, recognizing that behavior change in agriculture is fundamentally shaped by farmers’ beliefs, motivations, and social environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101143"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938735","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Topography determines soil C:N:P stoichiometry more than forest attributes in heterogeneous subtropical karst forests","authors":"Lu Yan ,&nbsp;Chaohao Xu ,&nbsp;Cong Hu ,&nbsp;Chaofang Zhong ,&nbsp;Zhonghua Zhang ,&nbsp;Gang Hu","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101142","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101142","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Understanding the ecological stoichiometry of soil nutrients and their drivers is essential for managing forest ecosystems, particularly in highly heterogeneous landscapes, such as karst forests. However, the effects of topography and forest attributes on soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) stoichiometry in these ecosystems remain unclear. This study investigated the influence of topographic conditions and forest attributes on the contents and stoichiometric ratios of C, N, and P in the surface soils (0–10 cm) of species-rich subtropical karst forests in China. The results showed that topography dominated the variability in total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) contents and their stoichiometry. TN and TP increased by 0.51 % and 0.97 %, respectively, per 1 % increase in rock exposure rate (RER), but decreased by 0.46 % and 1.79 % per 1-m rise in elevation (ELE). In contrast, the C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios exhibited opposite trends. The soil organic carbon (SOC) was not significantly affected by topography. Forest attributes showed limited influence, explaining only 6.02 % of the total variance in soil C:N:P stoichiometry. SOC and TN increased with the nearest taxon index (NTI), while the C:N and C:P ratios declined with the Shannon–Wiener diversity index. Correlation analyses revealed significant associations among topographic variables (ELE, RER, and aspect), forest attributes (Pielou’s evenness, NTI, and mean DBH), and soil C:N:P stoichiometry. The redundancy analysis revealed that topography accounted for a greater proportion of the variance (35.21 %) than forest attributes (6.02 %), with ELE, RER, and slope contributing 19.22 %, 10.98 %, and 3.18 %, respectively. These findings highlight that topographic conditions rather than forest characteristics are the primary drivers of soil C:N:P stoichiometric patterns in heterogeneous karst forests. This information is critical for guiding effective forest management and restoration strategies in karst regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101142"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938838","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Carbon stock and woody species diversity of the forests in Zegie Peninsula and monastic islands of Lake Tana, Ethiopia","authors":"Abebe Worku Amberbir ,&nbsp;Amare Bitew Mekonnen ,&nbsp;Ejigu Alemayehu Worku ,&nbsp;Getahun Yemata Lule","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101163","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101163","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Forests of the Zegie Peninsula and nearby monastic islands in Lake Tana are important refuges of biodiversity and major carbon sinks. However, their carbon stocks remain poorly quantified, and woody species diversity had not been well documented. This study assessed woody species diversity, plant community structure, forest biomass, and carbon stocks using standard allometric equations. Data were collected from 165 plots across Zegie, Daga Estifanos, Kebran Gebriel, and Entons Eyesus. A total of 89 woody species were identified, representing 75 genera and 40 families, and three plant communities were identified <em>Coffea arabica</em>-<em>Ehretia cymosa, Mimusops kummel</em>-<em>Syzygium guineense</em>, and <em>Celtis Africana</em>-<em>Stereospermum kunthianum</em>. Aboveground biomass ranged from 27.37 to 115.31 tons ha⁻¹, and the combined carbon stock from aboveground, belowground, and soil pools ranged from 163.31 to 214.59 tons ha⁻¹. The soil organic carbon pool contributed the largest and stable share of the total carbon stock ranged from 154.25 to 137.25 tons ha⁻¹. Aboveground biomass showed significant variation with slope aspect and declined with increasing altitude and slope. Overall, the high carbon stocks and woody species richness highlight the ecological significance of these forests and support their inclusion in REDD+ and other payment-based ecosystem service and forest conservation initiatives.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101163"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146037526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coupling mechanisms and optimization of urban green space equity and income distribution based on multi-source big data: A case study of beijing","authors":"Mengtao Chu ,&nbsp;Dongwei Tian ,&nbsp;Yuhang Zhang ,&nbsp;Jinxiao Zhang ,&nbsp;Yipeng Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101136","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101136","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Urban green spaces are essential components of green infrastructure and ecosystems, playing a vital role in environmental sustainability and residents’ well-being. With socioeconomic development and rising living standards, public demand for better-quality and more equitably distributed green space has increased. However, most studies focus on large and medium-sized parks, overlooking the role of small green spaces in spatial equity. Using Beijing as a case study, this research integrates multi-source big data to evaluate green space equity through the Gaussian Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (G2SFCA) method. It combines income distribution modeling, Lorenz curves, and Gini coefficients, and applies the Coupling Coordination Degree Model (CCDM) to explore the spatial coupling between green space equity and residents’ income distribution. Results show that: (1) Green space distribution in Beijing is notably uneven, with a population-weighted Gini coefficient of 0.3388. The top 10 % of the population by township has access to only about 0.6 % of green space, while the top 10 % of green space–rich areas accommodate 25–45 % of residents. In outer suburbs and ecological zones, a small population occupies most green resources. (2) Income distribution is also highly unequal, with a Gini coefficient of 0.7883. The lowest 10 % of the population holds merely 0.01–0.6 % of total income, while the highest-income 10 % captures 25–45 %. Income is relatively balanced in central districts but highly concentrated in the periphery. (3) Coupling between green space equity and income distribution varies spatially. Among 331 townships, 19.9 % show high coordination—mainly in the southeast and northwest—while 40.1 % are poorly coordinated, mostly in northern, central, and edge areas. Coupling coordination correlates positively with green space equity and less strongly with income. Quadrant analysis indicates that about 70 % of townships exhibit a “high–low mismatch,” reflecting social–ecological imbalance. The study suggests optimizing green space layout in outer suburbs and low-coordination areas, enhancing public green space provision, and promoting more balanced income distribution to support sustainable urban development and equitable access to green infrastructure.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101136"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938668","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of community sustainability on social forestry program implementation in Indonesia: Insights from agroforestry model in Java and Sumatra","authors":"Rospita Odorlina Situmorang,&nbsp;Sanudin,&nbsp;Ary Widiyanto,&nbsp;Eva Fauziyah","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101124","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101124","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Indonesia Social Forestry (SF) program has been implemented in different schemes and geographic locations, necessitating rigorous assessment to evaluate the effectiveness of its management. This study seeks to compare the implementation of the SF program in Java and Sumatra by conducting a sustainability analysis at community level. The research encompassed six communities, employing distinct SF scheme, twenty indicators - categorised into institutional, governance, and outcome dimensions were to utilized to calculate the sustainability index for each community. This finding indicate that communities in Java exhibit greater sustainability than those in Sumatra, as exhibit by their higher overall sustainability index (OSI). Java communities demonstrate superior performance in most institutional and governance indicators and derive enhanced socio-economic benefits from the SF program. Furthermore, the longevity of communities institutions and increased value of SF product's are indicative of more mature organizational governance and heightened entreprencurial capacity within these communities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101124"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938739","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rapid recovery of Brazilian tropical savanna woodlands (Cerrado stricto sensu) to prescribed burns","authors":"George Louis Vourlitis ,&nbsp;Higo Jose Dalmagro ,&nbsp;Osvaldo Borges Pinto Jr. ,&nbsp;Robson Nunes Vieira ,&nbsp;Carlos Roberto Ribeiro Malhado ,&nbsp;Paulo Henrique Zanella de Arruda","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101129","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101129","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fire is an important agent of disturbance for Brazilian tropical savanna (Cerrado), but fire suppression in protected areas like National Parks has transformed savanna grasslands and woodlands into forests. This transformation has caused a decline in biodiversity, prompting land managers to re-introduce fire to reduce tree encroachment and preserve the high biodiversity of these grasslands and woodlands. We partnered with land managers of the Chapada dos Guimarães National Park to conduct prescribed burns during the 2022 and 2023 dry seasons in Cerrado woodlands (<em>stricto sensu</em>). Our objectives were to determine how understory vegetation, tree growth, recruitment and mortality, and tree species composition were affected by the prescribed fires. We followed understory cover, tree species abundance, growth, mortality, and recruitment, surface root production, and soil nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content over a period of 1-2 years after fire to assess short-term stand recovery. Climatic conditions were similar prior to each fire, and while ground surface temperatures were similar for each fire, the 2023 fire was hotter in the understory canopy. Understory vegetation grew significantly faster in burned vs. unburned plots one year of post-fire. Tree mortality was significantly higher in burned stands one year after fire, but after two years of recovery tree mortality was similar in burned and unburned plots. Furthermore, trees that died in burned plots had significantly smaller diameters that trees that died in unburned plots, suggesting that fire differentially affected smaller trees. Tree recruitment was not significantly affected by fire, but species such as <em>Andira cujabensis, Qualea grandiflora, and Tachigali vulgaris</em> had a fire-induced increase in relative growth rate (RGR) during the first year of post-fire recovery. Fire also increased the relative abundance of <em>A. cujabensis and T. vulgaris</em> but caused a significant decline in <em>Cenostigma macrophyllum</em> that persisted for two years after fire. Together, these results indicate a resilient vegetation response to fire, especially for understory vegetation and tree species that are considered fire resistant. These data can help inform land managers on how to use fire as a tool for reducing tree encroachment and preserving biodiversity of these protected woodlands.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101129"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938835","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Threshold-driven spatial configuration for urban park cooling: Translating multi-metric analysis into actionable design guidelines in Shenzhen","authors":"Haoran Tang ,&nbsp;Haoran Hu ,&nbsp;Xinyun Qiu ,&nbsp;Guoyi Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101153","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101153","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Urban parks are vital thermal regulators in rapidly urbanizing regions, while advances in spatial metrics and machine learning exist, the systematic identification of environmental thresholds across multiple cooling metrics and translating multidimensional cooling analyses into actionable design guidelines for medium-to-large urban parks remain challenging. This study applies an ensemble engineering pipeline by integrating Random Forest feature selection, LightGBM modeling, and SHAP interpretability to analyze cooling performance across 196 parks in Shenzhen. Our analysis reveals critical compound thresholds: Parks under 20 ha achieve optimal cooling effect when situated in high-vegetation zones, whereas larger parks maintain stable cooling efficiency. Forest area benefits for park cooling intensity plateau at approximately 5 ha but continue enhancing cooling area, indicating metric-specific optimization needs. Road density exceeding 15% significantly impairs cooling performance, with distinct thresholds per metric. We translate these findings into practical design rules: Maintaining tree heights at 10–15 m maximizes cooling efficiency for smaller parks, while limiting impervious surfaces below 40% enhances cooling extent. By systematically examining interactions between two-dimensional landscape metrics, three-dimensional vegetation characteristics, and urban context across multiple cooling indicators, this work demonstrates how ensemble machine learning techniques, when coupled with interpretability methods, can generate implementable thermal resilience strategies within existing urban design frameworks. The study bridges the gap between complex nonlinear analysis and actionable engineering guidance for subtropical megacities facing acute heat challenges.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101153"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145976595","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How does climate influence mangrove litterfall production across different species? A case study in Zhanjiang, China","authors":"Yuhang Wang ,&nbsp;Qi Liu ,&nbsp;Xiafei Zhou ,&nbsp;Wanyu Wen ,&nbsp;Minghao Gong ,&nbsp;Yaojun Zhu","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101137","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2025.101137","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mangrove litterfall represents a major pathway of energy and nutrient flux, yet species-specific and organ-specific climatic responses remain insufficiently understood. This study quantified litterfall dynamic of three dominant mangrove species—<em>Avicennia marina, Bruguiera gymnorhiza</em>, and <em>Rhizophora stylosa</em>—compared fresh and dry organ-level phenology, and identified climatic drivers of species- and organ-specific litterfall patterns. Litterfall was monitored sub-monthly for two years (2023–2024) in mature subtropical stands and partitioned into leaves, flowers, propagules, and branches. Across species, annual fresh litterfall ranged from 1675.39 g m⁻²·in <em>A. marina</em> to 2998.74 g m⁻²·in <em>B. gymnorhiza</em>, with leaves contributing over 60% of total biomass. <em>B. gymnorhiza</em> and <em>R. stylosa</em> consistently produced more litterfall than <em>A. marina</em>. Pronounced interspecific differences were observed: <em>B. gymnorhiza</em> exhibited the strongest seasonality with sharp mid-year peaks, whereas <em>R. stylosa</em> maintained relatively stable production year-round. Leaf and flower litterfall showed asynchronous seasonal patterns across species, while propagule and branch litterfall displayed distinctly staggered reproductive and structural turnover cycles. To examine climatic effects, we employed Bayesian generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs), which capture nonlinear climate–litterfall relationships and account for hierarchical variation among species and organs. The models revealed clear functional differentiation in climatic sensitivity. Temperature positively influenced leaf and flower litterfall, particularly above 28 °C. Precipitation showed unimodal effects, and maximum wind speed strongly promoted flower and propagule litterfall, especially in <em>A. marina</em> and <em>R. stylosa</em>. Relative humidity had generally minor effects. Leaf litterfall showed the strongest climatic response, while branch litterfall was least sensitive. Overall, this study highlights contrasting phenological rhythms and climatic sensitivities among coexisting mangrove species and provide insights to support mangrove restoration, carbon accounting, and climate adaptation in subtropical coastal ecosystems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 101137"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145938743","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}