Psychologie Francaise最新文献

“L’Échelle de Connexion au Soi”: French validation of the Self-Connection Scale and relationships with health and social outcomes “ L ' Échelle de Connexion au Soi ”：法国对自我连接量表及其与健康和社会结果的关系的验证

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-12-01 Epub Date: 2025-05-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.03.004

Gérald Delelis , Théo Zérouali , Maxime Retailleau

Introduction

Klussman et al. (2021a) propose a measure of the connection with the self, the “Self-Connection Scale” and show its favorable links with health outcomes.

Objectives

No French validation of this scale currently exists. The primary aim of the present study is to propose this scale for French users. The second aim is twofold: first, to test the links between self-connection scores (including its three sub-dimensions: self-awareness, self-acceptance, and self-alignment) and health and social outcomes (anxiety, depression, social and emotional loneliness, and solitude); second, to compare these links with those frequently observed for self-esteem on similar outcomes.

Method

Eighty-seven women (M = 35.1, SD = 17.2) and 56 men (M = 32.4, SD = 13.8) took part in this study by filling out a booklet of questionnaires.

Results

This French validation presents very satisfactory factorial structure and reliability. The scores are similar to the original ones. Higher scores of self-connection relate to lower scores of anxiety, depression, and solitude and lesser troubles of social and emotional loneliness. Finally, the effects of self-esteem and self-connection on these outcomes do not fully overlap.

Conclusion

We discuss the potential of this scale in identifying specific weaknesses related to the self. Its use could be of significant interest to professionals, serving both as an identification tool and as a possible basis for practice. Additionally, we propose avenues for further research to better understand which dimensions of the connection to the self play a role in various outcomes, and why this is the case.

klussman et al. （2021a）提出了一种衡量与自我联系的“自我联系量表”，并显示了其与健康结果的良好联系。目的：法国目前尚无对该量表的验证。本研究的主要目的是为法国用户提出这个量表。第二个目的有两个：第一，测试自我连接分数（包括它的三个子维度：自我意识、自我接受和自我调整）与健康和社会结果（焦虑、抑郁、社交和情感孤独以及孤独）之间的联系；第二，将这些联系与那些经常观察到的自尊在类似结果上的联系进行比较。方法87名女性（M = 35.1, SD = 17.2）和56名男性（M = 32.4, SD = 13.8）通过填写调查问卷参加了本研究。结果该方法具有令人满意的析因结构和信度。分数和原版差不多。自我连接得分越高，焦虑、抑郁和孤独的得分越低，社交和情感孤独的困扰也越少。最后，自尊和自我联系对这些结果的影响并不完全重叠。结论：我们讨论了该量表在识别与自我相关的特定弱点方面的潜力。它的使用可能对专业人员有很大的兴趣，既可以作为识别工具，也可以作为实践的基础。此外，我们提出了进一步研究的途径，以更好地理解与自我联系的哪些维度在各种结果中发挥作用，以及为什么会这样。

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引用次数: 0

L’attention soutenue et le vagabondage mental ou « mind-wandering » 持续关注和“思想漫游”

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-12-01 Epub Date: 2025-05-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.03.003

C. Ziane , C. Wardak , S. Ben Hamed

Attention is a complex, multifaceted process comprising several sub-functions and dynamically adapting to factors such as tasks, environment, and mental state. Sustained attention, essential for learning, relies on a complex network of cognitive control that undergoes significant developmental changes. Simultaneously, universal mind-wandering diverts attention from tasks, influenced by variables such as fatigue and effort, impacting creativity, planning, and problem-solving. The relationship between mind-wandering and sustained attention, governed by various cognitive mechanisms, involves interconnected brain networks transitioning between internal reflection and task-focused concentration. Recent data, however, point to a functional dissociation between these two processes. We discuss these aspects and conclude with experimental perspectives opened by this discussion.

注意是一个复杂的、多方面的过程，包括若干子功能，并根据任务、环境和精神状态等因素动态适应。持续的注意力对学习至关重要，它依赖于一个复杂的认知控制网络，这个网络经历了重大的发展变化。同时，受疲劳和努力等变量的影响，普遍的走神分散了人们对任务的注意力，影响了创造力、计划和解决问题的能力。走神和持续注意力之间的关系受各种认知机制的支配，涉及内在反思和任务集中之间的相互联系的大脑网络转换。然而，最近的数据表明，这两个过程之间存在功能分离。我们将讨论这些方面，并以本次讨论所开启的实验视角作为结论。

引用次数: 0

Validation of a French version of the subjective cognitive load scale among college students 法语版大学生主观认知负荷量表的验证

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-12-01 Epub Date: 2025-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.05.002

C. Tordet , M. Cazes , L. Leconte , C. Rougeot , E. Jamet

Introduction

Cognitive load theory has substantially influenced instructional design, by emphasizing the importance of managing cognitive load to optimize learning. Cognitive load has three components: intrinsic (ICL), extraneous (ECL) and germane (GCL). The cognitive load scale developed by Klepsch et al. (2017) has been widely used and extensively studied. However, no validation of this scale (or similar scales) has been proposed for the French language. Therefore, the objective of this study was to translate this cognitive load questionnaire into French and to assess its psychometric properties.

Method

In study 1, 297 undergraduate students completed this scale after a traditional lecture-style course to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Validity was assessed in study 2 (n = 37: involved evaluating learning situations characterized by high or low levels of ICL, ECL and GCL) and in study 3 (n = 65: examined the relation between GCL and learning performance following a self-paced e-learning module).

Results

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (study 1) showed that the three-dimensions solution was the most fitting. The French version also demonstrated satisfactory construct validity for ICL and ECL (study 2), and criterion validity with a positive relationship between GCL and learning performance (study 3).

Conclusion

The French version of the cognitive load scale shows robust psychometric properties, making it a reliable tool for assessing cognitive load in educational contexts among students.

认知负荷理论通过强调管理认知负荷以优化学习的重要性，对教学设计产生了实质性的影响。认知负荷有三个组成部分：内在负荷（ICL）、外在负荷（ECL）和密切负荷（GCL）。Klepsch et al.（2017）开发的认知负荷量表得到了广泛的应用和研究。然而，没有人提议对法语的这种量表（或类似的量表）进行验证。因此，本研究的目的是将认知负荷问卷翻译成法语，并评估其心理测量特性。方法以1297名大学生为研究对象，在传统的讲座式课程后完成该量表，进行探索性和验证性因素分析。在研究2 （n = 37：涉及评估以高或低水平的ICL、ECL和GCL为特征的学习情境）和研究3 （n = 65：在自定进度的电子学习模块后检验GCL与学习绩效之间的关系）中评估了效度。结果探索性因子分析和验证性因子分析（研究1）表明，三维解是最合适的。法语版本的ICL和ECL的构念效度也令人满意（研究2），而GCL与学习绩效之间的效度呈正相关（研究3）。结论法语版认知负荷量表具有较强的心理测量特性，是评估学生教育情境下认知负荷的可靠工具。

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引用次数: 0

Construction et validation initiale d’un questionnaire sur la communication ouverte dans les équipes de soins 建立和初步验证护理团队开放沟通问卷

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-12-01 Epub Date: 2025-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.05.001

B. Hémon, E. Michinov

This article describes the construction and initial validation of a French questionnaire measuring attitudes toward safety voice behaviors in healthcare teams, that is, information-sharing aimed at improving a situation perceived as jeopardising patient safety (COES). The factorial structure and validity of the questionnaire were assessed in two studies with nursing student samples (N_study1 = 546 and N_study2 = 183). Factor analyses suggested a structure of the COES questionnaire in three dimensions: perceived safety related to safety voice, safety voice climate, and perceived efficacy. Correlation analysis revealed significant relations between these dimensions, teamwork climate and safety climate scales (convergent validity), but not with an assertiveness scale (divergent validity). Predictive validity was assessed by hierarchical regression analyses on the estimated probability of raising concerns based on a clinical vignette. These probabilities were not predicted by the three safety voice dimensions but embarrassment associated with safety voice was predicted by perceived safety and perceived efficacy. Overall, the results confirm the psychometric qualities of the COES questionnaire, except for the factor related to perceived efficacy, which should be improved. Finally, we discuss the use of this scale to raise healthcare workers’ awareness of issues about remaining silent when faced with threats to patient safety and to evaluate the effects of safety voice skill training.

本文描述了一份法国问卷的构建和初步验证，该问卷测量了医疗团队中对安全建言行为的态度，即旨在改善被认为危及患者安全（COES）的情况的信息共享。在两项以护生为样本的研究（Nstudy1 = 546, Nstudy2 = 183）中评估问卷的析因结构和效度。因子分析表明，COES问卷的结构主要包括与安全语音相关的感知安全、安全语音气候和感知效能三个维度。相关分析显示，这些维度与团队气氛和安全气氛量表（收敛效度）之间存在显著的相关关系，而与自信量表（发散效度）之间不存在显著的相关关系。预测效度通过基于临床小片段的估计引起关注的概率的分层回归分析来评估。安全声音的三个维度无法预测这些概率，但与安全声音相关的尴尬可以通过感知安全性和感知有效性来预测。总体而言，结果证实了COES问卷的心理测量质量，但感知效能相关因素有待改进。最后，我们讨论了使用该量表来提高医护人员在面对患者安全威胁时保持沉默的意识，并评估安全语音技能培训的效果。

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引用次数: 0

Lecture partagée : intérêts, modalités de mise en œuvre et principes actifs 共同阅读：兴趣、实施方式和积极原则

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 Epub Date: 2025-06-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2024.11.003

A. Rémy-Néris , B. Facon , L. Macchi

Picture-book reading to young children is reputed to promote oral language development. However, a close examination of the literature shows that the ways in which this activity is implemented vary, and that their effects on language development are not equivalent. This review describes the practices that fall under the heading of “shared reading” and, based on the scientific literature, pays particular attention to “Dialogic reading”, a method whose principles have been described in greater detail over the years. The benefits of these shared reading activities are examined from the viewpoint of children’ s lexical and syntactic acquisition. The active principles of these practices, in particular the rich linguistic content of the books and the interactive dimension of the activity, are then described in detail. The use of shared reading as an intervention tool for children with language disorders is also considered, as well as the appropriate way to train parents and professionals in its use. The findings confirm the value of the most interactive methods of shared reading for improving children's vocabulary. However, research on morphosyntax and on the training parameters that optimise its effects are still limited. The results suggest that the key to effectiveness lies in the training of adults in interactive methods and in the selection of books appropriate to the child's level. Questions that remain to be clarified about the ins and outs of this activity, as well as research perspectives to be considered, are raised throughout this review.

给幼儿读绘本被认为能促进口语的发展。然而，对文献的仔细研究表明，这种活动的实施方式各不相同，它们对语言发展的影响也不尽相同。本综述描述了属于“共享阅读”标题下的实践，并根据科学文献特别关注“对话阅读”，这种方法的原理多年来已得到更详细的描述。从儿童词汇和句法习得的角度考察了这些共同阅读活动的好处。然后详细描述了这些实践的积极原则，特别是书籍中丰富的语言内容和活动的互动维度。还考虑了将共享阅读作为语言障碍儿童的干预工具，以及培训家长和专业人员使用共享阅读的适当方法。研究结果证实了最具互动性的共享阅读方法对提高儿童词汇量的价值。然而，关于形态语法和优化其效果的训练参数的研究仍然有限。结果表明，有效的关键在于对成人进行互动方法的培训和选择适合儿童水平的书籍。关于这一活动的来龙去脉，以及需要考虑的研究观点，有待澄清的问题在本综述中提出。

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引用次数: 0

Cancer patients beliefs about cancer causes 癌症患者对癌症病因的看法

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 Epub Date: 2025-05-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.03.002

P. Cannone , P. Tomasini , L. Greillier , L. Dany

Introduction

Cause is one of the most important illness representation dimensions. The causal beliefs and their components are associated with behavioral or coping strategies. This work aims to study the typology of cancer causes produced by cancer patients, assess the relationship between reported causes and patients’ socio-demographic and medical characteristics, study the co-occurrence of causes, and assess the potential role and impact of cause attributions on different dimensions associated to illness experience (illness representations, coping, psychological distress, quality of life).

Method

A total of 237 patients (63.7% males, mean age 62.07) were enrolled. The survey was conducted using a self-administered questionnaire amongst cancer patients (n = 237, 63.7% males; mean age 62.07) assessed illness representations, mental adjustment of patients, psychological distress, and quality of life.

Results

The internal causes are overrepresented and half patients reporting at least one cause for their cancer attributed causes from two or three different categories. Psychological attribution was associated with a poor adjustment (more anxious preoccupations and emotional representations. Internal attribution is associated with active coping (fighting spirit) and can be seen as adaptive.

Conclusion

The study of causal attribution is a heuristic way to understand the experience of cancer, and the relations between causal beliefs, adaptation, and psychosocial stake.

病因是最重要的疾病表征维度之一。因果信念及其组成部分与行为或应对策略有关。本研究旨在研究癌症患者产生的癌症原因的类型，评估报告的原因与患者社会人口统计学和医学特征之间的关系，研究原因的共现性，并评估原因归因在与疾病经历相关的不同维度（疾病表征、应对、心理困扰、生活质量）中的潜在作用和影响。方法共纳入237例患者，其中男性63.7%，平均年龄62.07岁。本研究采用自填问卷对237名癌症患者（男性占63.7%，平均年龄62.07岁）进行调查，评估患者的疾病表现、心理调整、心理困扰和生活质量。结果内部原因被过度代表，一半的患者报告至少一种癌症原因归因于两种或三种不同的原因。心理归因与适应能力差（更多的焦虑关注和情绪表征）有关。内部归因与积极应对（战斗精神）有关，可以被视为适应性。结论因果归因研究是了解癌症经历以及因果信念、适应和心理社会利益之间关系的启发式方法。

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引用次数: 0

Tell me about regret: Regret identification and labeling in children and adults 告诉我关于后悔：儿童和成人的后悔识别和标签

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 Epub Date: 2025-05-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.03.001

M. Habib , C. Beauvais , C.J. Gosling , S. Guéraud

The labeling of emotions plays an important role in one's ability to adapt behavior to environmental and contextual demands. However, little is currently known about children's ability to label regret. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine 3rd–5th grade (CE2 to CM2) children's ability to label regret from written stories compared to that of adults (18–30 years). We also aimed to compare regret labeling to the labeling of other complex emotions, in particular disappointment. To this end, the participants read short stories designed to elicit sadness, anger, shame, guilt, disappointment and regret. We assessed emotion labeling by asking participants to label the emotions felt after reading each story, and through the reporting of the intensity with which they felt listed emotions. Children identified regret from the age of 10–11 years, and disappointment from the age of 8–9 years. However, regret and disappointment labeling remained rare in children of all age groups. Our results indicate that regret and disappointment labeling is a long process that is still developing from 3rd to 5th grade, and that the presentation of a list of emotions leads to better labeling of the target emotion than a free labeling task. The implications of our results as well as methodological considerations are discussed.

情绪的标签在一个人适应环境和语境要求的能力中起着重要的作用。然而，目前对儿童给后悔贴上标签的能力知之甚少。因此，本研究的目的是检验三至五年级（CE2至CM2）儿童与成人（18-30岁）相比，从书面故事中标记遗憾的能力。我们还试图将后悔标签与其他复杂情绪的标签进行比较，尤其是失望。为了达到这个目的，参与者们阅读了一些短篇故事，这些故事旨在引发悲伤、愤怒、羞耻、内疚、失望和后悔。我们通过要求参与者在阅读完每个故事后给所感受到的情绪贴上标签，并通过报告他们所感受到的情绪的强度来评估情绪标签。10-11岁的孩子会感到后悔，8-9岁的孩子会感到失望。然而，遗憾和失望标签在所有年龄组的儿童中仍然很少见。我们的研究结果表明，遗憾和失望标签是一个长期的过程，从三年级到五年级仍在发展，并且情绪列表的呈现比自由标签任务更能导致目标情绪的标签。我们的结果的含义以及方法上的考虑进行了讨论。

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引用次数: 0

Échelle des théories implicites l’intelligence tournées vers soi (TIIS) : validation psychométrique en langue française auprès d’une population étudiante 自我导向智力隐性理论量表（TIIS）：用法语对学生进行心理测量验证

IF 0.5 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 Epub Date: 2025-05-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2024.10.001

M. Ahmida, L. Léger, F. Fenouillet

Introduction

Implicit theories of intelligence have long been studied as predictors of academic success.

Objective

This study aims to validate the psychometric properties of a scale measuring implicit conceptions of one's intelligence in French, for a population of university students. The scale was adapted from De Castella and Byrne (2015).

Method

The translated version of the De Castella and Byrne (2015) scale was completed by more than 1000 students enrolled in the first year of a bachelor's degree program, along with another scale of conception of general intelligence (Da Fonseca et al., 2007) and achievement goals (Darnon & Butera, 2005) to assess its convergent and concurrent validity.

Results

The analyses allowed us to evaluate the psychometric qualities of this translated version positively. Factor analyses confirm a 2-factor structure: intelligence perceived as a fixed entity and intelligence perceived as incremental (malleable). The correlations with achievement goals attest to the convergent validity of the scale. The difference between the conception of general intelligence and self-directed implicit theories shows that students have a more incremental view of their intelligence than general intelligence.

Conclusion

The various analyses validate the use of this translated version to determine the implicit conceptions of self-directed intelligence of French-speaking students who are beginning a university bachelor's degree curriculum.

长期以来，内隐智力理论作为学业成功的预测因素被研究。目的本研究旨在验证大学生法语智力内隐概念量表的心理测量特性。量表改编自De Castella和Byrne（2015）。方法采用De Castella and Byrne（2015）量表的翻译版本，由1000多名本科一年级的学生完成，并与另一个通用智力概念量表（Da Fonseca et al., 2007）和成就目标量表（Darnon & Butera, 2005）一起评估其收敛效度和并发效度。结果通过分析，我们对翻译本的心理测量质量做出了积极的评价。因素分析证实了一个双因素结构：被认为是固定实体的智力和被认为是增量（可塑）的智力。与成就目标的相关性证明了量表的收敛效度。一般智力的概念与自我导向内隐理论的差异表明，学生对自己智力的看法比一般智力更渐进。结论各种分析验证了使用该翻译版本来确定法语学生开始大学学士学位课程的自我导向智力的内隐概念。

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引用次数: 0

Loneliness, negative emotional states and somatic symptoms disorders: The mediating roles of coping styles and defense mechanisms 孤独、负性情绪状态与躯体症状障碍：应对方式和防御机制的中介作用

IF 0.4 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-02-04 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2025.01.004

Mahsa Kashefizadeh , Ali Asadbeygi , Mojtaba Rahimian Bougar , Mahboobe Taher , Nasrollah Mazraeh , Siamak Khodarahimi , Pantea Sadat Alavi

Purpose

Purpose: This research investigated the impact of loneliness and negative emotional states (NES) on somatic symptoms disorders (SSD) in adults, utilizing structural equation modeling to assess how coping styles and defense mechanisms mediate these effects.

Patients and methods

Using purposive sampling, a clinical sample of 300 outpatients with PSS has been selected. The Psychosomatic Symptoms Questionnaire (PSQ-39), the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults-Short Version (SELSA-S), the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations-Short-Form (CISS-SF) and the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40) used in this study.

Results

The analysis found that loneliness explained 76.8% of NES variations. Loneliness and NES predicted 76.6% of coping style variations and 82.9% of defense mechanism variations. Also, loneliness and NES predicted 91.3% of SSD variations by the moderating roles of coping styles and defense mechanisms.

Conclusion

Loneliness and NES have significant direct and indirect associations with SSD through the moderating influences of coping styles and defense mechanisms.

目的：研究孤独感和负性情绪状态（NES）对成人躯体症状障碍（SSD）的影响，利用结构方程模型分析应对方式和防御机制如何介导这些影响。患者与方法采用有目的的抽样方法，选取300例门诊PSS患者作为临床样本。本研究使用的心身症状问卷（PSQ-39）、成人社会与情感孤独量表-短版（SELSA-S）、抑郁焦虑压力量表-21 （DASS-21）、压力情境应对量表-短版（csis - sf）和防御风格问卷（DSQ-40）。结果分析发现，孤独感解释了76.8%的NES变异。孤独和NES分别预测了76.6%的应对方式变异和82.9%的防御机制变异。孤独感和NES通过应对方式和防御机制的调节作用预测了91.3%的SSD变化。结论孤独感和NES通过应对方式和防御机制的调节作用与SSD存在显著的直接和间接关联。

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引用次数: 0

Les élèves victimes de violences intrafamiliales vus par leurs enseignants : représentations des enseignants, sentiment d’efficacité et relation à l’élève 教师眼中遭受家庭暴力的学生：教师形象、效能感和与学生的关系

IF 0.4 4区心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Psychologie Francaise

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2024-11-30 DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2024.11.001

O. Paul , A. Corfdir , L. Nicolas

Introduction

In the era of inclusive schooling, teachers must provide all students with quality education that meets their needs. However, children who are victims of domestic violence constitute an unknown public for teachers and their particularities are hardly taken into account. Their schooling is tested by the context of vulnerability they experience.

Objective

The aim of this article is to examine teachers’ perceptions of pupils who are victims of domestic violence, their relationship with these pupils and their self-efficacity in classroom management.

Method

Seventy-six school teachers (72 women and 4 men) were interviewed using questionnaires: the Child-teacher relationship scale (Gosselin, 1999), the Self-efficacy scale for teachers in management class (Gaudreau et al., 2015) and an open-ended question focusing on the representation of the child.

Results and conclusion

Our results show that the representations constructed about the child who is a victim of domestic violence are linked to the pupil-teacher relationship. The teachers’ experience is also a factor influencing their self-efficacy, particularly in the teacher's beliefs in dealing with the challenging behaviors of these pupils in the classroom. These results suggest the importance of supporting teachers to promote the educational trajectory of these pupils with special needs.

在全纳教育时代，教师必须为所有学生提供满足其需求的优质教育。然而，遭受家庭暴力的儿童对教师来说是一个未知的群体，他们的特殊性几乎没有得到考虑。他们的学校教育受到他们所经历的脆弱环境的考验。目的探讨教师对家庭暴力受害学生的看法、教师与受害学生的关系以及教师在课堂管理中的自我效能感。方法采用儿童与教师关系量表（Gosselin, 1999）、管理类教师自我效能量表（Gaudreau et al., 2015）和一个关注儿童表征的开放式问题对76名学校教师（72名女性，4名男性）进行访谈。结果与结论我们的研究结果表明，家庭暴力受害者儿童的表征与师生关系存在关联。教师的经验也是影响其自我效能感的一个因素，尤其是教师在处理这些学生在课堂上具有挑战性的行为时的信念。这些结果提示了支持教师促进特殊需要学生教育轨迹的重要性。

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引用次数: 0