Explorations in Economic History最新文献

英文中文

The Black–white lifetime earnings gap 黑人与白人终生收入差距

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101629

Ezra Karger , Anthony Wray

The average white male born in 1900 earned 2.6 times more labor income over their lifetime than the average Black male. This gap is nearly twice as large as the more commonly studied cross-sectional Black–white earnings gap because 48% of Black males born in 1900 died before the age of 30 as compared to just 26% of white males. We calibrate a model of optimal consumption in a world with mortality risk to data describing the life-cycle earnings and survival probabilities of Black and white males born between 1900 and 1970. We find that convergence in Black and white mortality rates led to a 50% reduction in Black–white welfare gaps between the 1900 and 1920 birth cohorts, even as cross-sectional Black–white income gaps for those cohorts remained relatively constant. However, the Black–white welfare gap stagnated for the 1920 to 1970 birth cohorts as gaps in Black–white life expectancy and income remained stable and large.

1900 年出生的白人男性一生的平均劳动收入是黑人男性的 2.6 倍。这一差距几乎是更常研究的横截面黑人-白人收入差距的两倍，因为 1900 年出生的黑人男性中有 48% 在 30 岁前死亡，而白人男性中只有 26% 在 30 岁前死亡。我们根据描述 1900 年至 1970 年间出生的黑人和白人男性生命周期收入和生存概率的数据，校准了一个存在死亡风险的世界中的最优消费模型。我们发现，黑人和白人死亡率的趋同导致 1900 年至 1920 年出生队列中黑人与白人的福利差距缩小了 50%，即使这些队列中黑人与白人的横截面收入差距保持相对稳定。然而，1920 年至 1970 年出生队列中黑人与白人的福利差距停滞不前，因为黑人与白人的预期寿命和收入差距保持稳定且较大。

引用次数: 0

Speed of convergence in a Malthusian world: Weak or strong homeostasis? 马尔萨斯世界的趋同速度：弱平衡还是强平衡？

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101634

Arnaud Deseau

The Malthusian trap is a well recognized source of stagnation in per capita income prior to industrialization. However, previous studies have found mixed evidence about its exact strength. This article contributes to this ongoing debate by estimating the speed of convergence for a panel of 9 preindustrial European economies over a long period of time (14th–18th century). The analysis relies on a calibrated Malthusian model for England and

β

-convergence regressions. I find evidence of significant differences in the strength of the Malthusian trap between preindustrial European economies. The strongest estimated Malthusian trap is in Sweden, with a half-life of 20 years. The weakest estimated Malthusian trap is in England, with a half-life of about 230 years. This implies that some preindustrial economies were able to experience prolonged variations in their standards of living after a shock, while still being subject to Malthusian stagnation in the long run.

马尔萨斯陷阱是公认的工业化之前人均收入停滞不前的根源。然而，以往的研究对其确切强度的证据褒贬不一。本文通过估算 9 个工业化前欧洲经济体在很长一段时间（14-18 世纪）内的收敛速度，为这一持续的争论做出了贡献。分析依赖于英国的马尔萨斯校准模型和 β 趋同回归。我发现有证据表明，工业化前的欧洲经济体在马尔萨斯陷阱的强度上存在显著差异。瑞典的马尔萨斯陷阱估计强度最大，半衰期为 20 年。估计马尔萨斯陷阱最弱的是英国，半衰期约为 230 年。这意味着，一些前工业化经济体在受到冲击后，其生活水平能够经历长时间的变化，但从长远来看，仍然会出现马尔萨斯式的停滞。

引用次数: 0

Labor coercion, fiscal modernization, and state capacity: Evidence from colonial Indonesia 劳动胁迫、财政现代化和国家能力：殖民时期印度尼西亚的证据

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101632

Mark Hup

What explains the emergence of centralized fiscal institutions and information-intensive monetary taxation? This is the first study to estimate the effect of state capacity expansion on labor coercion as taxation, a practice known as corvée labor. To do so, I construct a new database covering eighteen Indonesian residencies over thirty-two years (1874–1905) during the period of Dutch colonial rule. I document the wide use of corvée labor and find that national-level policy centralized state finances by gradually replacing corvée with a head tax. At the same time, a residency-level panel data analysis shows that local state capacity expansion, primarily indigenous officials working as agents for the state, slowed the movement away from corvée. These estimates are supported by an IV strategy that uses effective distance to the capital as an instrument for local state capacity. The relationship between state capacity expansion and fiscal modernization therefore depends on what part of the state is expanding and whether interests across types of taxation differ within the state bureaucracy. Opposing interests of different state actors can be key in understanding fiscal modernization and public labor coercion.

中央集权财政机构和信息密集型货币税收的出现原因何在？这是第一项估算国家能力扩张对作为税收的劳动胁迫（一种被称为 corvée labor 的做法）的影响的研究。为此，我构建了一个新的数据库，涵盖荷兰殖民统治时期 32 年（1874-1905 年）内的 18 个印尼居民点。我记录了徭役的广泛使用，并发现国家层面的政策通过逐步用人头税取代徭役来集中国家财政。同时，居住地层面的面板数据分析显示，地方国家能力的扩张（主要是作为国家代理人的土著官员）减缓了徭役的消失。利用与首都的有效距离作为地方国家能力的工具的 IV 策略支持了这些估计。因此，国家能力扩张与财政现代化之间的关系取决于国家的哪一部分在扩张，以及国家官僚机构内部不同税收类型之间的利益是否存在差异。不同国家行为者的利益对立可能是理解财政现代化和公共劳动胁迫的关键。

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引用次数: 0

Family first: Defining, constructing, and applying historical patent families 家族第一：定义、构建和应用历史专利族

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101627

David E. Andersson , Matti La Mela , Fredrik Tell

The article presents a novel method that enables the formation of historical patent families. Patent families are useful for studying the value of inventions and identifying key technologies, as they indicate geographic diffusion and higher patenting costs. The concept of patent family has not been employed in historical contexts as historical sources generally lack information about priority rights. The article provides a definition of a historical patent family, where patent families incorporate patents with the same invention core. The method is applied and evaluated by constructing Swedish patent families in 1885–1914 with historical patent data from Finland and the United States. Moreover, the article introduces the Patent Diffusion Index (PDI), which is an indicator of historical patent families which can be used to study the sequence and pace of market entry. The article exemplifies how historical patent families open novel perspectives on patent value and technology diffusion in contrast to current indicators, such as patent fees, which usually are bound to national contexts. The method is applicable to any national patent data, and patent drawings are suggested as an effective way to form historical patent families.

文章介绍了一种能够形成历史专利族的新方法。专利族对于研究发明价值和识别关键技术非常有用，因为它们表明了专利的地域扩散和较高的专利成本。由于历史资料通常缺乏优先权方面的信息，因此专利族的概念尚未在历史背景下使用。本文给出了历史专利族的定义，即专利族包括具有相同发明核心的专利。通过利用芬兰和美国的历史专利数据构建 1885-1914 年的瑞典专利族，对该方法进行了应用和评估。此外，文章还介绍了专利扩散指数（PDI），这是历史专利族的一个指标，可用于研究市场进入的顺序和速度。文章举例说明了历史专利族如何为专利价值和技术扩散开辟了新的视角，与专利费等通常受国家背景约束的现行指标形成鲜明对比。该方法适用于任何国家的专利数据，并建议将专利图纸作为形成历史专利族的有效方法。

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引用次数: 0

(In-kind) Wages and labour relations in the Middle Ages: It’s not (all) about the money (实物）中世纪的工资和劳资关系：不是（全部）为了钱

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101626

Jordan Claridge , Vincent Delabastita , Spike Gibbs

This paper explores the prevalence of in-kind wages in medieval labour markets and the underlying reasons for their use. Using a new dataset of agricultural labourers in medieval England, we demonstrate that, until the late fourteenth century, wages were recorded anonymously and most remuneration was done through in-kind payment. From the 1370s, however, labour remuneration shifted increasingly to cash and workers began to be named individually in the accounts which recorded their wages. We argue that these changes reveal a fundamental shift in labour relations in late medieval England, providing new empirical insights into the ‘golden age of labour’ that followed the Black Death.

本文探讨了中世纪劳动力市场中实物工资的普遍性及其使用的根本原因。利用中世纪英格兰农业劳动者的新数据集，我们证明了直到 14 世纪晚期，工资都是匿名记录的，大多数报酬都是通过实物支付完成的。然而，从 13 世纪 70 年代开始，劳动报酬越来越多地转向现金，工人的姓名也开始出现在记录工资的账目中。我们认为，这些变化揭示了中世纪晚期英格兰劳动关系的根本转变，为黑死病之后的 "劳动黄金时代 "提供了新的实证见解。

引用次数: 0

Elite persistence and inequality in the Danish West Indies, 1760–1914 1760-1914 年丹麦西印度群岛的精英持续与不平等现象

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101636

Stefania Galli , Dimitrios Theodoridis , Klas Rönnbäck

The issue of how elites as a social group form, maintain their position, and influence the society they control is central to the debate on inequality. This paper studies one of the most extremely unequal societies ever recorded — the sugar-based economies in the West Indies — by focusing on the island of St. Croix in the Danish West Indies and examines the emergence and persistence of its economic elite. The study relies on a novel dataset that covers the entire population of the island over 154 years, allowing for a long-run analysis of elite persistence and the effects of significant economic, institutional, and social changes. Our study shows that elite persistence remained high in global comparison throughout the period of interest, despite several 'critical junctures'. These junctures only had a temporary effect. We contend that this result can be attributed to three mechanisms of persistence: inheritance, institutional co-optation and limited franchise. Finally, we find that although the Crucian elite maintained its relative standing, it came at the cost of severe impoverishment in absolute terms.

精英作为一个社会群体是如何形成、维持其地位并影响其所控制的社会的，这个问题是关于不平等的辩论的核心。本文以丹麦西印度群岛的圣克罗伊岛为中心，研究了有史以来最不平等的社会之一--西印度群岛以蔗糖为基础的经济，并考察了该岛经济精英的出现和持续情况。这项研究依赖于一个新颖的数据集，该数据集涵盖了圣克罗伊岛 154 年来的全部人口，从而可以对精英的持续性以及重大经济、制度和社会变革的影响进行长期分析。我们的研究表明，在整个研究期间，尽管出现了几个 "关键时刻"，但与全球相比，精英的持久性仍然很高。这些关键时刻只产生了暂时的影响。我们认为，这一结果可归因于三种持续机制：继承、机构增选和有限的特许权。最后，我们发现，尽管克鲁西亚精英阶层保持了其相对地位，但其代价却是绝对的严重贫困。

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引用次数: 0

Access to kin, economic stress, and late-life mortality in North Orkney, Scotland, 1851–1911 1851-1911 年苏格兰北奥克尼的亲属关系、经济压力和晚年死亡率

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-09-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101622

Julia A. Jennings

This paper analyzes the effects of kin availability and short-term economic stress on mortality among older adults in North Orkney, Scotland in the mid-19th through early 20th century. The mortality of those aged 60+ is associated with high oatmeal prices lagged by one year, a delayed effect that may suggest that buffering mechanisms are less effective in the longer term or that relative to younger groups, older adults are better able to cope with the immediate effects of stress. Associations between mortality risk and indicators of kin availability vary by individual sociodemographic characteristics, but they are limited to close kin in both the spatial and genealogical sense. Benefits of nearby, but not coresident kin accrue only to ever-married men during times of high food prices. Coresident and nearby kin are associated with complex patterns of mortality risk, suggesting that family relationships may represent a resource in some circumstances, but a liability in others. There is limited evidence for the effects of expansive kin support for aging adults and support flows do not always favor the older generation.

本文分析了 19 世纪中叶至 20 世纪初，苏格兰北奥克尼地区亲属供应和短期经济压力对老年人死亡率的影响。60 岁以上人群的死亡率与滞后一年的燕麦片高价格有关，这种延迟效应可能表明缓冲机制在长期内效果较差，或者相对于年轻群体，老年人更有能力应对压力的直接影响。死亡风险与亲属可用性指标之间的关联因个体社会人口特征而异，但仅限于空间和家谱意义上的近亲。在高粮价时期，只有已婚男性能从近亲而非同居亲属中获益。同住亲属和近亲与复杂的死亡风险模式有关，这表明家庭关系在某些情况下可能是一种资源，但在另一些情况下则可能是一种负担。关于扩大亲属支持对老龄成年人的影响的证据有限，而且支持流并不总是有利于老一代人。

引用次数: 0

Skill, race, and wage inequality in British Tanganyika 英属坦噶尼喀的技能、种族和工资不平等

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-09-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101625

Sascha Klocke

High racial disparities between Europeans and Africans and high skill premiums are recurrent themes in the literature on inequality in colonial Africa. However, their determinants and effects on inequality remain underexplored. This paper investigates wage inequality, skill premiums, and racial discrimination in British Tanganyika from c. 1920 to 1960. It provides first estimates for wage inequality and race premiums in Tanganyika and extends the coverage of earlier skill premium estimates. Initially, wage inequality in Tanganyika was comparable to neighbouring Kenya and Uganda, but it remained higher in the late colonial period. A primary driver of wage inequality was racial wage disparity, which was partly caused by racial discrimination. Skill premiums also played an important and increasing role and were higher than previously thought. The Tanganyikan administration's failure to expand African education to meet skilled labour demand significantly contributed to racial income differences and wage inequality within the African labour force.

欧洲人和非洲人之间的种族差异大以及技能溢价高是有关殖民时期非洲不平等问题的文献中经常出现的主题。然而，这些问题的决定因素及其对不平等的影响仍未得到充分探讨。本文研究了约 1920 年至 1960 年英属坦噶尼喀的工资不平等、技能溢价和种族歧视问题。本文首次对坦噶尼喀的工资不平等和种族溢价进行了估算，并扩大了早期技能溢价估算的覆盖范围。最初，坦噶尼喀的工资不平等程度与邻国肯尼亚和乌干达相当，但在殖民地后期仍然较高。工资不平等的一个主要驱动因素是种族工资差异，其部分原因是种族歧视。技能溢价也发挥了重要作用，而且作用越来越大，比以前想象的要高。坦噶尼喀政府未能扩大非洲教育以满足对熟练劳动力的需求，这在很大程度上造成了非洲劳动力内部的种族收入差异和工资不平等。

引用次数: 0

Colonial legacies and wealth inequality in Kenya 肯尼亚的殖民遗产与财富不平等

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-09-11 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101623

Rebecca Simson

This article discusses the evolution of Kenya's wealth distribution from the late 1950s to the present. Utilizing previously untapped probate and administration sources, it measures the share of Kenyans leaving estates at death, and maps how this wealth-owning strata has changed over time. It shows a growth in African estates after independence, and by the 1980s roughly 8 % of Kenyans left estates at death, largely a consequence of land titling and land reform. Meanwhile, European estates dwindled as settlers divested. Since the 1990s, Nairobi-based estate-holders are growing in share, reflecting the importance of urban property to the portfolios of the wealthy. Measures of top wealth shares suggest high wealth inequality in both the late colonial period and the present, but today's wealth inequality is driven by the uneven distribution of housing wealth, more so than by agricultural land. These findings illustrate how a variety of colonial legacies influenced wealth accumulation in postcolonial Kenya.

本文讨论了 20 世纪 50 年代末至今肯尼亚财富分配的演变。文章利用以前尚未开发的遗嘱检验和行政管理资料来源，测量了肯尼亚人死后留下遗产的比例，并描绘了这一财富拥有阶层随着时间的推移发生的变化。报告显示，非洲人的遗产在独立后有所增长，到 20 世纪 80 年代，大约有 8% 的肯尼亚人在死后留下了遗产，这在很大程度上是土地所有权和土地改革的结果。与此同时，欧洲人的庄园随着定居者的撤资而减少。自 20 世纪 90 年代以来，以内罗毕为基地的遗产持有者所占比例不断增加，这反映出城市房地产在富人投资组合中的重要性。对最高财富份额的衡量表明，在殖民地晚期和现在，财富不平等现象都很严重，但今天的财富不平等是由住房财富的不均衡分配造成的，而不是由农业用地造成的。这些发现说明了各种殖民遗产如何影响后殖民时期肯尼亚的财富积累。

引用次数: 0

Corporations and partnerships: Factory productivity in late Imperial Russia 公司与伙伴关系：帝国晚期俄罗斯的工厂生产力

IF 2.6 1区历史学 Q1 ECONOMICS

Explorations in Economic History

Pub Date : 2024-08-31 DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101621

Nikita Lychakov

Using factory-level data from an official manufacturing census, I examine productivity among two forms of enterprise in the Russian Empire from around 1908. I find that despite having 60 times more financial capital, factories owned by corporations did not outperform those owned by ordinary and limited partnerships. Although corporations were more mechanized per worker, both enterprise forms attained equal capital and labor productivity and total factor productivity. Corporations attained higher labor productivity than partnerships only in the metals and machinery industry. These findings suggest that Russian factories used the corporate form's unique advantages in a rather limited way: to build larger factories and undertake larger projects, but not to enhance productivity beyond the level of the partnership form. I also find that there were fewer accidents per worker at partnership-owned factories than at corporations.

我利用官方制造业普查中的工厂级数据，研究了俄罗斯帝国自 1908 年前后两种企业形式的生产率。我发现，尽管公司所拥有的金融资本是普通合伙企业和有限合伙企业的 60 倍，但公司所拥有的工厂并不优于普通合伙企业和有限合伙企业所拥有的工厂。尽管公司每名工人的机械化程度更高，但两种企业形式的资本和劳动生产率以及全要素生产率却不相上下。只有在金属和机械行业，公司的劳动生产率高于合伙企业。这些发现表明，俄罗斯工厂在相当有限的范围内利用了公司形式的独特优势：建造更大规模的工厂和开展更大型的项目，但并没有将生产率提高到合伙形式的水平之上。我还发现，与公司制工厂相比，合伙制工厂每名工人发生的事故更少。

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全部化学•材料生命科学医学物理工程技术环境•农林材料科学地球科学法学管理学化学环境科学与生态学计算机科学教育学经济学农林科学人文科学生物学数学物理与天体物理心理学综合性期刊其他工业工程理学历史学农学文学信息工程

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