Pub Date : 2026-01-29DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105572
Xinming Du , Andrew J. Wilson
Railway operation is known to be affected by the weather, but the magnitude of these effects has not been estimated at scale. We investigate the effect of weather on U.S. railways using accident and performance data spanning 1997–2022. We find that exposure to temperatures over 86 F (under 5 F) leads to a 9.5% (46%) increase in accidents and a 57% (222%) increase in deaths. Railroads are also adapted to their local climate (with warmer places exhibiting lower sensitivity to heat), learn from prior accidents, and change train speed and throughput in response to weather. Due to the fixed, network nature of railways, we discover that local responses to weather result in a negative externality of propagating delays. Our findings suggest that public funding for rail upgrades may improve both safety and performance.
{"title":"Weather and U.S. railways: risk, adaptation, and congestion","authors":"Xinming Du , Andrew J. Wilson","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105572","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105572","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Railway operation is known to be affected by the weather, but the magnitude of these effects has not been estimated at scale. We investigate the effect of weather on U.S. railways using accident and performance data spanning 1997–2022. We find that exposure to temperatures over 86 <span><math><msup><mspace></mspace><mrow><mo>∘</mo></mrow></msup></math></span>F (under 5 <span><math><msup><mspace></mspace><mo>∘</mo></msup></math></span>F) leads to a 9.5% (46%) increase in accidents and a 57% (222%) increase in deaths. Railroads are also adapted to their local climate (with warmer places exhibiting lower sensitivity to heat), learn from prior accidents, and change train speed and throughput in response to weather. Due to the fixed, network nature of railways, we discover that local responses to weather result in a negative externality of propagating delays. Our findings suggest that public funding for rail upgrades may improve both safety and performance.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 105572"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146081485","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
We examine the impact of involuntary job displacement on workers’ commuting behavior and its implications for the overall welfare cost of job loss. Using geo-referenced employee-employer data from Germany (2000–2017), we track workers’ door-to-door commuting and relocation patterns between home and work. After displacement, workers commute 23.1% (3.38 kilometers) farther to new jobs, and the effect diminishes over time due to job changes rather than home relocation. The simultaneous wage and commuting effects suggest that wage differentials across jobs fail to compensate for commuting costs. An on-the-job search model with heterogeneous firm productivity and commuting distance rationalizes the findings, and structural estimates reveal that an average German worker’s commuting costs equal 20.2 euros per day. Hence, longer commutes exacerbate the total cost of job displacement by one-fifth of the wage losses.
{"title":"Beyond lost earnings: Job displacement and the cost of commuting","authors":"Yige Duan , Oskar Jost , Ramona Jost , Holger Seibert","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105579","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105579","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We examine the impact of involuntary job displacement on workers’ commuting behavior and its implications for the overall welfare cost of job loss. Using geo-referenced employee-employer data from Germany (2000–2017), we track workers’ door-to-door commuting and relocation patterns between home and work. After displacement, workers commute 23.1% (3.38 kilometers) farther to new jobs, and the effect diminishes over time due to job changes rather than home relocation. The simultaneous wage and commuting effects suggest that wage differentials across jobs fail to compensate for commuting costs. An on-the-job search model with heterogeneous firm productivity and commuting distance rationalizes the findings, and structural estimates reveal that an average German worker’s commuting costs equal 20.2 euros per day. Hence, longer commutes exacerbate the total cost of job displacement by one-fifth of the wage losses.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 105579"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146057586","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-29DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105562
Ana Figueiredo , Olivier Marie , Agnieszka Markiewicz
Segmented labor markets, where stable jobs coexist with insecure, high-turnover positions, make job security key to workers’ long-term outcomes. Using Dutch administrative data, we study the impact of displacement on job security and the role of cash-on-hand. One year after displacement, permanent employment falls by about one-fifth and remains lower five years later, amplifying wage losses: displaced workers who lose job security experience losses 21 % larger than those retaining a permanent contract. Exploiting a policy granting lump-sum transfers only to some displaced workers, we find that eligibility attenuates job security losses and, as a result, wage losses. Effects are larger among liquidity-constrained workers, consistent with binding liquidity constraints. Our findings highlight job security as a key channel through which cash-on-hand reduces the long-run costs of job loss, with implications for the design of unemployment insurance.
{"title":"The unequal job security scars of displacement","authors":"Ana Figueiredo , Olivier Marie , Agnieszka Markiewicz","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105562","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105562","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Segmented labor markets, where stable jobs coexist with insecure, high-turnover positions, make job security key to workers’ long-term outcomes. Using Dutch administrative data, we study the impact of displacement on job security and the role of cash-on-hand. One year after displacement, permanent employment falls by about one-fifth and remains lower five years later, amplifying wage losses: displaced workers who lose job security experience losses 21 % larger than those retaining a permanent contract. Exploiting a policy granting lump-sum transfers only to some displaced workers, we find that eligibility attenuates job security losses and, as a result, wage losses. Effects are larger among liquidity-constrained workers, consistent with binding liquidity constraints. Our findings highlight job security as a key channel through which cash-on-hand reduces the long-run costs of job loss, with implications for the design of unemployment insurance.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 105562"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146081486","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-23DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105575
Marie Briere , James Poterba , Ariane Szafarz
This paper investigates the demand for precautionary liquidity versus commitment contracts among participants in employer-sponsored retirement saving programs in France. All firms in the sample offer medium-term investments; they cannot be accessed for five years. Some also offer long-term (LT) investments, which cannot be accessed until retirement. If a plan offers LT investments, its auto-enrollment default must include them. Workers who experience changes in access to LT investments as a result of job changes are about 6 percentage points less likely to take up the plan default option, and 3 percentage points less likely to participate in the plan at all, when exposed to LT investments. We intepret this as a preference for precautionary liquidity, but two–thirds of active choosers still allocate some contributions, although less than the default, to LT investments, consistent with demand for partial commitment.
{"title":"Precautionary liquidity and worker decisions: Evidence from French employee saving plans","authors":"Marie Briere , James Poterba , Ariane Szafarz","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105575","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105575","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper investigates the demand for precautionary liquidity versus commitment contracts among participants in employer-sponsored retirement saving programs in France. All firms in the sample offer medium-term investments; they cannot be accessed for five years. Some also offer long-term (LT) investments, which cannot be accessed until retirement. If a plan offers LT investments, its auto-enrollment default must include them.<!--> <!-->Workers who experience changes in access to LT investments as a result of job changes are about 6 percentage points less likely to take up the plan default option, and 3 percentage points less likely to participate in the plan at all, when exposed to LT investments. We intepret this as a preference for precautionary liquidity, but two–thirds of active choosers still allocate some contributions, although less than the default, to LT investments, consistent with demand for partial commitment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"254 ","pages":"Article 105575"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146023796","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-21DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105574
Robert Akerlof, Richard Holden, DJ Thornton
There is increasing evidence that social media is detrimental to mental health and self-esteem. A puzzle is why, in spite of this, people join these platforms. One possibility is that people feel compelled to participate: they dislike these networks—in particular, the way in which they generate rat races—but they need to be on them to socialize with peers. We refer to networks that harm users as “bad networks.” We model settings with network externalities and show that, surprisingly, bad networks are easy to establish. We also show that networks tend to be both bad and easy to establish when they create rat races—as social networks often do. Amplifying the rat race boosts network size which, while harmful to consumers, may benefit the platform.
{"title":"Bad networks","authors":"Robert Akerlof, Richard Holden, DJ Thornton","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105574","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2026.105574","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>There is increasing evidence that social media is detrimental to mental health and self-esteem. A puzzle is why, in spite of this, people join these platforms. One possibility is that people feel compelled to participate: they dislike these networks—in particular, the way in which they generate rat races—but they need to be on them to socialize with peers. We refer to networks that harm users as “bad networks.” We model settings with network externalities and show that, surprisingly, bad networks are easy to establish. We also show that networks tend to be both bad and easy to establish when they create rat races—as social networks often do. Amplifying the rat race boosts network size which, while harmful to consumers, may benefit the platform.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"254 ","pages":"Article 105574"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146023795","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-19DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105557
Erik Grönqvist , Lena Hensvik , Yoko Okuyama , Anna Thoresson
We study how changes in couples’ relative wages affect the division of childcare. Using a nationwide wage reform that raised pay in the female-dominated teaching profession, we find that closing 25% of the earnings gap between female teachers and their male spouses led to a 12% reduction in the childcare time gap. This result holds when we extend the analysis to major pay raises for women at the population level. Data support the mechanism that women reduce their childcare time when the spouse can step in by working more from home. Policies that address female pay can foster household equality, if men have access to flexible work arrangements.
{"title":"Women’s labor market opportunities and equality in the household","authors":"Erik Grönqvist , Lena Hensvik , Yoko Okuyama , Anna Thoresson","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105557","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105557","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We study how changes in couples’ relative wages affect the division of childcare. Using a nationwide wage reform that raised pay in the female-dominated teaching profession, we find that closing 25% of the earnings gap between female teachers and their male spouses led to a 12% reduction in the childcare time gap. This result holds when we extend the analysis to major pay raises for women at the population level. Data support the mechanism that women reduce their childcare time when the spouse can step in by working more from home. Policies that address female pay can foster household equality, if men have access to flexible work arrangements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"254 ","pages":"Article 105557"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146023794","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-10DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105564
Florian Englmaier , Matthias Fahn , Ulrich Glogowsky , Marco A. Schwarz
This paper identifies a new channel through which employment protection laws can harm workers: they enable employers to exploit naïve present-biased employees. The theoretical mechanism through which firing costs enable exploitation is built upon a widespread career structure. Employers frequently offer career trajectories with an unattractive entry phase (e.g., with low pay or high effort), an even less attractive mid-career stage, and high rewards promised in a final career phase. Naïve employees accept such contracts, expecting to complete the high-reward track. They, however, eventually drop out or sort into alternative paths mid-career when costs loom large and rewards remain distant. As a result, employers avoid paying the promised rewards while capturing surplus from early-career phases. Firing costs give employers more leeway to exploit workers with such contracts: they reduce the employees’ expected risk of dismissal and make long-term rewards appear more credible. Employers can then exploit employees even more—for example, by lowering early-career wages—knowing that employees will still accept such steeper contracts despite not following through. Our model aligns with career patterns in fields such as healthcare, academia, or accounting. It also yields testable predictions on wage structures, attrition, and how firing costs and labor market conditions shape contract design.
{"title":"When protection becomes exploitation: The impact of firing costs on Naïve Employees","authors":"Florian Englmaier , Matthias Fahn , Ulrich Glogowsky , Marco A. Schwarz","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105564","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105564","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper identifies a new channel through which employment protection laws can harm workers: they enable employers to exploit naïve present-biased employees. The theoretical mechanism through which firing costs enable exploitation is built upon a widespread career structure. Employers frequently offer career trajectories with an unattractive entry phase (e.g., with low pay or high effort), an even less attractive mid-career stage, and high rewards promised in a final career phase. Naïve employees accept such contracts, expecting to complete the high-reward track. They, however, eventually drop out or sort into alternative paths mid-career when costs loom large and rewards remain distant. As a result, employers avoid paying the promised rewards while capturing surplus from early-career phases. Firing costs give employers more leeway to exploit workers with such contracts: they reduce the employees’ expected risk of dismissal and make long-term rewards appear more credible. Employers can then exploit employees even more—for example, by lowering early-career wages—knowing that employees will still accept such steeper contracts despite not following through. Our model aligns with career patterns in fields such as healthcare, academia, or accounting. It also yields testable predictions on wage structures, attrition, and how firing costs and labor market conditions shape contract design.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"254 ","pages":"Article 105564"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145929254","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-10DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105560
Shi-Ting He , Liugang Sheng , Peng Zhang
This paper is the first to examine the impact of air pollution on exporters’ comparative advantage in the global market and their ensuing strategic responses. Using comprehensive firm-product export data from China spanning 2000 to 2007 and exploiting exogenous variation in air pollution induced by thermal inversions for identification, we estimate a detrimental effect of increased air pollution on exports through its adverse impact on labor productivity. The effects are particularly pronounced for labor-intensive products, prompting firms to restructure their product scope away from labor-intensive varieties. Moreover, larger firms exhibit greater resilience to these adverse effects. The quantitative analysis demonstrates that improving air quality in China would significantly enhance its comparative advantage and aggregate welfare, while also benefiting the rest of the world.
{"title":"Air pollution as comparative disadvantage","authors":"Shi-Ting He , Liugang Sheng , Peng Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105560","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105560","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper is the first to examine the impact of air pollution on exporters’ comparative advantage in the global market and their ensuing strategic responses. Using comprehensive firm-product export data from China spanning 2000 to 2007 and exploiting exogenous variation in air pollution induced by thermal inversions for identification, we estimate a detrimental effect of increased air pollution on exports through its adverse impact on labor productivity. The effects are particularly pronounced for labor-intensive products, prompting firms to restructure their product scope away from labor-intensive varieties. Moreover, larger firms exhibit greater resilience to these adverse effects. The quantitative analysis demonstrates that improving air quality in China would significantly enhance its comparative advantage and aggregate welfare, while also benefiting the rest of the world.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"254 ","pages":"Article 105560"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145980359","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-06DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105563
Thorbjørn Sejr Guul , Søren Albeck Nielsen
We study a policy reform in Denmark that introduced a GPA threshold for academic readiness for upper secondary education 1.5 years before the end of middle school. Students near the threshold received similar information about their academic performance, but those just below it were labeled “not ready” and offered a second chance through reevaluation the following year. Using a fuzzy regression discontinuity design, we find that students just below the threshold improved their final middle school GPA, were more likely to complete high school, and subsequently more likely to enroll in post-secondary education. These effects are driven primarily by increased student effort, evidenced by higher conscientiousness and reduced part-time work, rather than changes in school or parental investment. Importantly, we find no adverse effects on student well-being. The positive effects are especially pronounced among students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and among girls, but we observe beneficial impacts across all subgroups. Our results suggest that entry criteria combined with second-chance opportunities can substantially improve students’ educational trajectories, particularly in the transition to upper secondary education.
{"title":"“Not ready” as a productive wake-up call: Do second chances improve human capital investments?","authors":"Thorbjørn Sejr Guul , Søren Albeck Nielsen","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105563","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105563","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We study a policy reform in Denmark that introduced a GPA threshold for academic readiness for upper secondary education 1.5 years before the end of middle school. Students near the threshold received similar information about their academic performance, but those just below it were labeled “not ready” and offered a second chance through reevaluation the following year. Using a fuzzy regression discontinuity design, we find that students just below the threshold improved their final middle school GPA, were more likely to complete high school, and subsequently more likely to enroll in post-secondary education. These effects are driven primarily by increased student effort, evidenced by higher conscientiousness and reduced part-time work, rather than changes in school or parental investment. Importantly, we find no adverse effects on student well-being. The positive effects are especially pronounced among students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and among girls, but we observe beneficial impacts across all subgroups. Our results suggest that entry criteria combined with second-chance opportunities can substantially improve students’ educational trajectories, particularly in the transition to upper secondary education.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"254 ","pages":"Article 105563"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145904106","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105561
Sarah R. Cohodes , Ozkan Eren , Orgul Ozturk
This paper examines the effects of a teacher-focused school reform program — combining performance pay with teacher observation and feedback — implemented in high-need schools on students’ longer-run educational, criminal justice, and economic self-sufficiency outcomes. Using linked administrative data from a Southern state, we leverage the quasi-randomness of the timing of program adoption across schools to show that the school reform improved educational attainment and reduced both felony criminal activity before age 19 and dependence on government assistance in early adulthood (ages 18–22). We find little scope for student sorting or changes in the composition of teacher workforce to explain the findings, and instead find changes in school climate consistent with improved school environments and increased teacher efficiency. Program benefits far exceeded its costs. A comparison with a similar educator-focused reform suggests that the individual incentive component of the program is necessary but not sufficient to improve student outcomes.
{"title":"The long run effects of a teacher-focused school reform on student outcomes","authors":"Sarah R. Cohodes , Ozkan Eren , Orgul Ozturk","doi":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105561","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105561","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper examines the effects of a teacher-focused school reform program — combining performance pay with teacher observation and feedback — implemented in high-need schools on students’ longer-run educational, criminal justice, and economic self-sufficiency outcomes. Using linked administrative data from a Southern state, we leverage the quasi-randomness of the timing of program adoption across schools to show that the school reform improved educational attainment and reduced both felony criminal activity before age 19 and dependence on government assistance in early adulthood (ages 18–22). We find little scope for student sorting or changes in the composition of teacher workforce to explain the findings, and instead find changes in school climate consistent with improved school environments and increased teacher efficiency. Program benefits far exceeded its costs. A comparison with a similar educator-focused reform suggests that the individual incentive component of the program is necessary but not sufficient to improve student outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48436,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Public Economics","volume":"253 ","pages":"Article 105561"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145883986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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