Journal of Experimental Social Psychology最新文献

Black racial phenotypicality: Implications for the #BlackLivesMatter Movement 黑人种族表型：对 #BlackLivesMatter 运动的影响

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-14 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104696

Maire L. O'Hagan, Samantha R. Pejic, Jason C. Deska

Black individuals with phenotypically African features tend to experience heightened discrimination and mistreatment. The current research examined how racial phenotypicality and prototypicality effect hate crime reporting metrics and beliefs about who evaluators are represented #BlackLivesMatter. Across five studies (N = 876), results indicate that, compared to low racially phenotypic Black targets, high phenotypic targets were seen as more represented by #BlackLivesMatter (Study 1). When depicted as being the victim of a hate crime, high phenotypic targets were deemed more credible and that it was more appropriate for them to report their victimization on the #BlackLivesMatter website compared to their low phenotypic counterparts by White (Study 2a and 2c) and Black participants (Study 2b and 2c). Black (Study 2b and 2c) and White (Study 3) participants showed differences in perceptions of harm following hate crime victimization. Study 3 extended these findings to a separate manipulation of prototypicality and used a more ecologically valid context. These findings provide support for the problematic exclusivity of narrow prototypes by demonstrating their effect on beliefs about who social justice movements represent, and how they influence beliefs about victim reporting metrics.

具有非洲人表型特征的黑人往往会遭受更严重的歧视和虐待。目前的研究考察了种族表型性和原型性如何影响仇恨犯罪报告指标，以及关于评估者是#BlackLivesMatter的代表的信念。在五项研究（N = 876）中，结果表明，与低种族表型的黑人目标相比，高表型的目标被认为更能代表 #BlackLivesMatter（研究 1）。当被描述为仇恨犯罪受害者时，白人参与者（研究 2a 和 2c）和黑人参与者（研究 2b 和 2c）认为高表型目标更可信，与低表型目标相比，他们更适合在 #BlackLivesMatter 网站上报告自己的受害情况。黑人（研究 2b 和 2c）和白人（研究 3）参与者在仇恨犯罪受害后对伤害的感知方面存在差异。研究 3 将这些发现扩展到了对原型性的单独操作中，并使用了更具生态有效性的环境。这些研究结果支持了狭隘原型的排他性问题，证明了它们对社会正义运动所代表的人的信念的影响，以及它们如何影响对受害者报告指标的信念。

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引用次数: 0

Certainty improves the predictive validity of Honesty-Humility and Dark Triad traits on cheating behavior 确定性提高了 "诚实-谦逊 "和 "黑暗三合会 "特质对作弊行为的预测效力

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-08 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104694

David Santos , Arsham Ghodsinia , Blanca Requero , Dilney Gonçalves , Pablo Briñol , Richard E. Petty

This research examined the extent to which certainty can strengthen the relationship between individual differences and cheating behavior. In the first two studies, participants completed the Honesty-Humility or the Dark Triad scales. Then, they rated the certainty they had in their responses to each of those two inventories. In the third study, participants completed both scales within the same experimental design and were randomly assigned to a certainty vs. doubt condition. As the dependent variables, we used different cheating outcomes across studies. As predicted, the link between these two traits and cheating behavior was greater for participants with higher levels of certainty in their responses to the inventories (Studies 1 and 2) or for those assigned to the certainty (vs. doubt) condition (Study 3). Incorporating the certainty with which individuals hold their traits contributes to enhancing the predictive validity of personality measures relevant to cheating.

本研究探讨了确定性在多大程度上可以加强个体差异与作弊行为之间的关系。在前两项研究中，参与者完成了诚实-谦逊或黑暗三合会量表。然后，他们分别对自己对这两个量表的回答的确定性进行评分。在第三项研究中，受试者在相同的实验设计中完成了两个量表，并被随机分配到确定与怀疑条件下。作为因变量，我们在各项研究中使用了不同的作弊结果。正如我们所预测的那样，这两种特质与作弊行为之间的联系对于那些对量表的回答具有较高确定性的参与者（研究 1 和研究 2）或那些被分配到确定（与怀疑）条件下的参与者（研究 3）来说更大。纳入个人对其特质的确定性有助于提高与作弊相关的人格测量的预测有效性。

引用次数: 0

Narcissistic vigilance to status cues 自恋者对地位线索的警惕性

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-05 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104688

Breanna E. Atkinson, Erin A. Heerey

Humans often take decisive action to influence their social environments, including their own position within a social hierarchy. Those who are highly motivated by status attainment may be especially prone to such activity. Here, we ask whether desire for social status contributes to the early detection of social stimuli, and more specifically, whether it plays a role in which environmental stimuli are consciously detected. We used a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation task to examine vigilance to status-relevant versus non-status-relevant stimuli, and asked whether measure of narcissism, a personality trait strongly associated with a drive for status attainment, moderated people's task responses. Results showed that when task stimuli were status relevant, self-reported narcissism moderated stimulus processing such that as participants reported higher levels of narcissism, the likelihood that they would recognize these rapidly presented words increased if they were status relevant, but not if the stimuli were non-status-relevant. These results suggest that the motivations that underpin personality traits, for example the drive to seek social status associated with narcissism, may play a formative role in the early processing and detection of social stimuli, thereby shaping people's social behaviour.

人类经常采取果断行动来影响其社会环境，包括自己在社会等级制度中的地位。那些对获得地位有强烈动机的人可能特别容易从事这种活动。在这里，我们要问的是，对社会地位的渴望是否有助于及早发现社会刺激，更具体地说，它是否在哪些环境刺激会被有意识地发现中起作用。我们使用了快速连续视觉呈现任务来研究对与地位相关和非相关刺激的警觉性，并询问自恋（一种与获得地位的驱动力密切相关的人格特质）的测量是否会调节人们的任务反应。结果表明，当任务刺激与地位相关时，自我报告的自恋会调节刺激的处理，这样，当参与者报告的自恋程度越高时，如果这些刺激与地位相关，他们识别这些快速呈现的单词的可能性就越大，但如果这些刺激与地位无关，他们识别这些快速呈现的单词的可能性就不会增加。这些结果表明，支撑人格特质的动机，例如与自恋相关的寻求社会地位的驱动力，可能会在早期处理和检测社会刺激的过程中起到形成作用，从而塑造人们的社会行为。

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引用次数: 0

Avoidance of altruistic punishment: Testing with a situation-selective third-party punishment game 避免利他主义惩罚：用情境选择性第三方惩罚游戏进行测试

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-02 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104695

Kodai Mitsuishi, Yuta Kawamura

Third-party punishment games have consistently shown that people are willing to bear personal costs to punish others who act selfishly, even as uninvolved observers. However, the traditional third-party punishment game places participants in contrived situations that mandate direct punishment decisions, potentially inflating the prevalence of such actions compared to those observed in more naturalistic settings. In light of this obligatory nature, one might speculate that if given the autonomy to step aside, people could be inclined to forgo punishment rather than penalize unfairness. The present study developed the Situation-Selective Third-Party Punishment Game (SS-TPPG), an experimental paradigm, to investigate whether avoidance of witnessing unfairness stems from a reluctance to make punitive decisions or a desire to avoid observing unfairness altogether. Three studies (total N = 810) consistently revealed that avoidance was driven by both a reluctance to witness unfair treatment and an aversion to administering punishments. Notably, participants who typically avoided observing unfair treatment were inclined to punish when forced to observe it. Furthermore, when given the opportunity to punish indirectly, participants were less likely to avoid observing unfair distributions. These results suggest that the elevated instances of direct punishment noted in the traditional third-party punishment game might be reflective of the game's structure, which constrains participants' ability to avoid witnessing unfair distributions.

第三方惩罚游戏一直表明，人们愿意承担个人代价来惩罚他人的自私行为，即使是作为无关的观察者。然而，传统的第三方惩罚游戏将参与者置于人为设计的情境中，强制要求他们做出直接的惩罚决定，与在更自然的环境中观察到的行为相比，可能会夸大此类行为的普遍性。鉴于这种强制性质，人们可能会推测，如果给人们让位的自主权，人们可能会倾向于放弃惩罚，而不是惩罚不公平。本研究开发了 "情境-选择性第三方惩罚游戏"（SS-TPPG）这一实验范式，以探究回避目睹不公平现象究竟是源于不愿做出惩罚性决定，还是希望完全避免目睹不公平现象。三项研究（总人数 = 810）一致显示，回避的原因既有不愿目睹不公平待遇，也有对实施惩罚的厌恶。值得注意的是，通常回避观察不公平待遇的参与者在被迫观察不公平待遇时会倾向于惩罚。此外，当有机会进行间接惩罚时，参与者不太可能避免观察不公平的分配。这些结果表明，在传统的第三方惩罚游戏中，直接惩罚的情况较多，这可能反映了游戏的结构限制了参与者避免观察不公平分配的能力。

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引用次数: 0

A colorblind ideal and the motivation to improve intergroup relations: The role of an (in)congruent status quo 色盲理想与改善群体间关系的动机：不一致现状的作用

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-31 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104693

Jessica Gale , Kumar Yogeeswaran

Social psychologists have long debated the meaning of treating people as unique individuals for intergroup relations, as empirical evidence on the topic has been rather mixed. In the present research, we examine a normative explanation for this mixed evidence by focusing on colorblindness as an ideal for managing diversity that suggests people should be treated as individuals independently of their group membership. To do so, we contrast colorblindness as a utopian, future-oriented ideal based on individual justice principles from a descriptive observation of society's current functioning (the status quo; i.e., one's point of reference reflecting whether people are currently treated by virtue of their individual characteristics versus group membership). We argue that endorsing a colorblind ideal should be associated with a motivation to improve intergroup relations specifically when people are currently perceived to be treated according to their group membership (incongruent status quo) instead of as individuals (congruent status quo). Four studies and a preliminary study (3 pre-registered; N = 2049) support this hypothesis, using a measure, experimental manipulations, and a quasi-experimental manipulation of an individual- vs. group-focused status quo, three indexes for the motivation to improve intergroup relations, as well as an internal meta-analysis. Results suggest that, despite widespread claims that colorblindness is at the root of group-based tensions and disparities, endorsing such an ideal can be understood as either perpetuating or working to improve such issues, depending on its (in)congruity with the (perceived) status quo. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

长期以来，社会心理学家们一直在争论将人作为独特个体对待对于群体间关系的意义，因为有关这一主题的经验证据参差不齐。在本研究中，我们将重点放在 "无肤色倾向 "这一管理多样性的理想上，认为人们应被当作独立于其群体成员身份的个体来对待，从而对这种混杂的证据进行规范性解释。为此，我们将 "无肤色倾向 "作为一种乌托邦式的、面向未来的理想，以个人公正原则为基础，与对社会当前运作（现状，即一个人的参照点，反映人们目前是否因其个人特征而受到对待，还是因其群体成员身份而受到对待）的描述性观察进行对比。我们认为，当人们目前被认为是根据其群体成员身份（不一致的现状）而不是作为个体（一致的现状）受到对待时，赞同无肤色偏见的理想应该与改善群体间关系的动机相关联。四项研究和一项初步研究（3 项预先注册；N = 2049）支持了这一假设，研究中使用了一种测量方法、实验操作、以个人为中心的现状与以群体为中心的现状的准实验操作、改善群体间关系动机的三个指标以及一项内部荟萃分析。研究结果表明，尽管人们普遍认为色盲是群体紧张关系和差异的根源，但赞同这种理想可以被理解为延续或努力改善这些问题，这取决于它与（感知到的）现状的（不）一致性。本文讨论了其理论和实践意义。

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引用次数: 0

Gender categorization and memory in transgender and cisgender people 变性人和同性人的性别分类与记忆

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-30 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104691

Natalie M. Gallagher , Emily Foster-Hanson , Kristina R. Olson

Gender categorization is central to everyday life. Discussions about gender have traditionally focused on gender identities, or gender categories to which a person might have an internal sense of belonging (e.g., men and women, boys and girls). More recently, discussions about gender also include gender modality (transgender or cisgender), or how a person's gender identity relates to their sex assigned at birth. In this registered report, we investigate gender-relevant categorization including gender identity and gender modality using measures assessing the automatic encoding of categories and explicit beliefs about the similarity between categories. We also compare performance on these tasks in transgender and cisgender youth and adults to help shed light on long-standing debates about the role of experience in categorization. Across two studies (N = 1144), we found that participants automatically encoded both gender identity and gender modality, and that variations in categorization between participant groups were largely mediated by participants' attitudes (i.e., openness to nonbinary identities) and experiences (i.e., contact with trans people). These results thus help refine our psychological theories of gender categorization to more accurately reflect the landscape of gender categories permeating modern society.

性别分类是日常生活的核心。有关性别的讨论历来侧重于性别认同，或一个人可能具有内在归属感的性别类别（如男人和女人、男孩和女孩）。最近，关于性别的讨论还包括性别模式（变性或顺性），或一个人的性别认同与其出生时被分配的性别之间的关系。在这份注册报告中，我们通过评估类别的自动编码和对类别之间相似性的明确信念，研究了包括性别认同和性别模式在内的性别相关分类。我们还比较了变性青年和同性青年及成人在这些任务上的表现，以帮助揭示长期以来关于经验在分类中的作用的争论。在两项研究（N = 1144）中，我们发现参与者会自动编码性别身份和性别模式，而且参与者群体之间的分类差异在很大程度上受参与者的态度（即对非二元身份的开放性）和经验（即与变性人的接触）的影响。因此，这些结果有助于完善我们的性别分类心理学理论，从而更准确地反映现代社会中的性别分类状况。

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引用次数: 0

Simultaneous pairing increases evaluative conditioning: Evidence for the role of temporal overlap but not of onset synchrony 同时配对会增强评价性条件反射：证明时间重叠的作用而非起始同步的作用

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104689

Jasmin Richter , Anne Gast

Evaluative conditioning (EC), a change in valence of a stimulus due to its co-occurrences with other stimuli, is frequently used to study attitude formation. The present studies investigate whether EC is influenced by whether the co-occurring stimuli have their onset at the same (vs. different) time, i.e., their onset (a)synchrony. To this end, we introduce a novel and sensitive measure which tests EC effects immediately after their assumed origin, i.e., after the co-occurrence of two stimuli in the conditioning phase. A pretest supported the validity of this measure. Study 1 showed that EC effects assessed during conditioning were smaller when paired stimuli had asynchronous onsets and a smaller temporal overlap. Yet, onset synchrony did not affect EC effects in Study 2 when temporal overlap of stimuli was held constant. Together these results suggest that EC is not affected by stimulus onset synchrony but might be affected by the amount of temporal overlap of the paired stimuli. Neither study showed effects of these pairing manipulations on EC effects assessed after the conditioning phase. Still, EC effects observed during conditioning strongly predicted EC effects observed after conditioning. Together our studies establish the new online measure and its usefulness in investigating theoretical questions of EC. Our findings extend previous research on the benefits of temporal contiguity of stimulus co-occurrences and provide new insight into the relation of post-conditioning EC and single stimulus co-occurrences during the conditioning phase.

评价性条件反射（Evaluative conditioning，EC）是一种因刺激物与其他刺激物同时出现而导致刺激物价值发生变化的现象，常用于研究态度的形成。本研究探讨了评价条件反射是否会受到同时出现的刺激物是否在相同（或不同）时间出现的影响，即它们的出现（a）同步性。为此，我们引入了一种新颖而灵敏的测量方法，在假定的起始时间（即在条件反射阶段两个刺激同时出现后）之后立即测试EC效应。预先测试证明了这一方法的有效性。研究 1 表明，当配对刺激的起始时间不同步且时间重叠较小时，在条件反射期间评估的 EC 效应较小。然而，在研究 2 中，当刺激的时间重合度保持不变时，起始同步性并不影响EC效应。这些结果共同表明，EC 不受刺激物的同步起始影响，但可能会受到配对刺激物的时间重叠量的影响。这两项研究均未显示配对操作对调节阶段后评估的EC效应的影响。不过，在条件反射过程中观察到的EC效应强烈预测了条件反射后观察到的EC效应。我们的研究共同确立了新的在线测量方法及其在研究EC理论问题时的实用性。我们的研究结果扩展了之前关于刺激共现的时间连续性益处的研究，并为条件反射后EC与条件反射阶段单一刺激共现的关系提供了新的见解。

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引用次数: 0

Thicker-skinned but still human: People may think individuals in poverty are less vulnerable to harm even when ascribing them full humanity 脸皮较厚，但仍是人类：人们可能会认为贫穷的人更不容易受到伤害，即使他们被赋予了充分的人性

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104687

Nathan N. Cheek

Research has shown that people sometimes display a “thick skin bias” whereby they believe that individuals in poverty are less harmed by negative events than individuals from higher socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds. The perception that individuals or groups are less feeling, less vulnerable to harm, or otherwise less responsive or reactive is often thought to be a hallmark of dehumanization. Four preregistered studies tested whether several approaches to dehumanization—e.g., subtle and blatant; animalistic and mechanistic—could explain people's belief that lower-SES individuals are less harmed by negative events. Across studies, participants thought that a variety of negative events would be less harmful for lower-SES individuals than for higher-SES individuals even when not ascribing lower-SES individuals any less humanity. Participants did, however, judge that lower-SES individuals had adapted to hardship more than higher-SES individuals, and this judgment significantly mediated the thick skin bias. Thus, although people in poverty are dehumanized in some contexts, a theory of the causes of the perceived “toughness” of lower-SES individuals will likely require additional explanatory mechanisms, such as beliefs about human adaptation to the hardship of poverty.

研究表明，人们有时会表现出一种 "厚脸皮偏见"，即认为与社会经济地位（SES）较高的人相比，贫穷的人受到负面事件的伤害较小。认为个人或群体的感受力较弱、不容易受到伤害，或反应较慢或反应迟钝，通常被认为是非人性化的标志。四项预先登记的研究测试了几种非人性化的方法--例如，微妙的和明目张胆的；动物性的和机械性的--是否可以解释人们认为社会经济地位较低的人受到负面事件伤害较小的看法。在所有的研究中，参与者都认为各种负面事件对较低等阶级的人造成的伤害要小于对较高等阶级的人造成的伤害，即使他们并不认为较低等阶级的人更缺乏人性。然而，参与者确实判断出，较低社会经济地位的人比较高社会经济地位的人更能适应困难，而这种判断在很大程度上调解了厚脸皮偏差。因此，尽管贫困人口在某些情况下被非人化，但要建立一种理论来解释较低社会经济地位的人被认为 "坚强 "的原因，很可能需要额外的解释机制，例如关于人类适应贫困困境的信念。

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引用次数: 0

Hierarchy as a signal of culture and belonging: Exploring why egalitarian ideology predicts aversion to hierarchical organizations 等级制度是文化和归属感的信号：探究平等主义意识形态为何预示着对等级制组织的反感

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104692

Sangah Bae, Sean Fath

Variation in people's ideological preference for the maintenance of inequality between social groups (i.e., social dominance orientation; SDO) predicts important sociopolitical outcomes, such as endorsement of different social policies, institutions, and belief systems. We argue that SDO may also inform people's engagement with work organizations. Specifically, we propose that SDO may impact attraction to different organizational structures. Across 6 experiments (N = 3034), we find that people with relatively egalitarian values are less attracted to organizations with much (vs. little) managerial hierarchy; this gap in attraction is attenuated for relative anti-egalitarians (Studies 1a-b). These effects are not moderated by whether dominant vs. subordinate group members occupy positions of power in hierarchical arrangements (Study 2a-b) and are driven by signals concerning likelihood of organizational belonging that egalitarians (vs. anti-egalitarians) derive from managerial hierarchy (Studies 3a-b). We discuss implications for social dominance theory and research connecting ideology to organizational attraction.

人们在意识形态上对维护社会群体间不平等的偏好（即社会主导取向；SDO）的不同会预测重要的社会政治结果，如对不同社会政策、制度和信仰体系的认可。我们认为，SDO 也会影响人们对工作组织的参与。具体来说，我们认为 SDO 可能会影响对不同组织结构的吸引力。通过 6 项实验（N = 3034），我们发现，具有相对平等主义价值观的人对管理等级制度较多（与较少）的组织的吸引力较小；而对相对反平等主义者来说，这种吸引力上的差距有所减弱（研究 1a-b）。这些影响并不受在等级制度安排中占据权力地位的主导群体成员与从属群体成员的影响（研究 2a-b），而是受平等主义者（与反平等主义者）从管理等级制度中获得的组织归属可能性信号的影响（研究 3a-b）。我们将讨论社会支配理论以及将意识形态与组织吸引力联系起来的研究的意义。

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引用次数: 0

Top-down racial biases in size perception: A registered replication and extension of Wilson et al. (2017) 体型感知中自上而下的种族偏见：威尔逊等人（2017）的注册复制与扩展

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104690

Mayan Navon , Niv Reggev , Tal Moran

Biases in the perception and judgment of members of race-based and ethnicity-based minority groups are prevalent, often resulting in detrimental outcomes for these individuals. One such bias is a threat-related stereotype, associating specific race and ethnicity-based social groups with aggressiveness, violence, and criminality. In the US context, Black men are often victims of such bias. Recent evidence suggests that threat-related stereotypes are also linked to biased perceptions, such that perceivers overestimate the body size of Black relative to White men, even in the absence of perceptual differences between them. That is, mere top-down social category information was sufficient to induce perceptual biases in size perception related to threat (Wilson et al., 2017, Study 7). Considering the novelty of this finding and its theoretical importance, we suggested a registered replication of this finding to assess its robustness across laboratories, participants, and social groups. We conducted a direct replication (Study 1, N = 280) of the effect reported by Wilson and colleagues, followed by a conceptual replication (Study 2, N = 280) that tested the generalization of the original findings to another population (Israeli residents) and a different target social group (Muslim Israelis) frequently stereotyped as threatening in this population. Participants did not overestimate the body size of Black or Muslim Israeli targets, pointing to a failed replication of the original effect. These findings suggest that the effects of purely top-down social category information on threat-related perception and judgment are less robust than previously assumed.

对少数种族和族裔群体成员的认知和判断普遍存在偏见，往往会对这些人造成不利的结果。其中一种偏见是与威胁相关的刻板印象，即把特定的种族和民族社会群体与攻击性、暴力和犯罪联系起来。在美国，黑人男性往往是这种偏见的受害者。最近的证据表明，与威胁相关的刻板印象也与有偏差的感知有关，例如，感知者会高估黑人相对于白人男性的体型，即使他们之间没有感知差异。也就是说，仅仅是自上而下的社会类别信息就足以诱发与威胁有关的体型感知偏差（威尔逊等人，2017年，研究7）。考虑到这一发现的新颖性及其理论重要性，我们建议对这一发现进行注册复制，以评估其在不同实验室、参与者和社会群体中的稳健性。我们对威尔逊及其同事报告的效应进行了直接复制（研究 1，N = 280），随后又进行了概念复制（研究 2，N = 280），测试了原始发现在另一个人群（以色列居民）和一个不同的目标社会群体（以色列穆斯林）中的普遍性。受试者没有高估黑人或以色列穆斯林目标的体型，这表明原始效应的复制失败了。这些研究结果表明，纯粹自上而下的社会类别信息对威胁相关感知和判断的影响没有之前假设的那么强大。

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引用次数: 0