Journal of Experimental Social Psychology最新文献_第6页

What types of gratitude expressions promote prosocial behavior?: A registered report 什么样的感激表达会促进亲社会行为？：注册报告

IF 3.1 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-30 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104805

Anurada U. Amarasekera, Kelton L. Travis, Kristina K. Castaneto, Tiara A. Cash, Lara B. Aknin

Prosociality confers benefits to those who engage in the behavior, as well as those who receive it. So, how can prosociality, especially repeated acts of giving, be encouraged? Past research shows that receiving an expression of gratitude can promote prosocial behavior. However, existing work has focused on the benefits of receiving gratitude in comparison to receiving nothing, thereby leaving the content of gratitude expressions unexamined. Drawing upon past research demonstrating the benefits of identity-relevant appeals, we compare how two different gratitude expressions – one that references an individual's kind personality (i.e., prosocial character) and another that references an individual's kind actions (i.e., prosocial action) – impact future prosocial behavior in comparison to each other and to a no-gratitude control condition using two high-powered pre-registered studies. In both studies, participants (603 undergraduate students in Experiment 1; 876 online adult sample in Experiment 2) engaged in a prosocial task and were then randomly assigned to receive one of two gratitude expressions or a no-gratitude control condition. Afterwards, participants had the opportunity to help again. Comparing helping rates across conditions we found no significant differences among helping behavior in Experiment 1. However, in Experiment 2, results indicated that individuals who received an expression of gratitude, regardless of content, donated more than individuals that solely received an acknowledgement of their help. We interpret these findings as mixed support for gratitude's function as a moral reinforcer and consider why gratitude expressions referencing an individual's generous character vs. action may have had little impact.

亲社会行为对参与这种行为的人和接受这种行为的人都有好处。那么，怎样才能鼓励亲社会行为，尤其是反复的给予行为呢？过去的研究表明，接受感激的表达可以促进亲社会行为。然而，现有的研究主要集中在接受感激的好处上，而不是什么都不接受，因此没有研究感激表达的内容。借鉴过去的研究证明了身份相关呼吁的好处，我们比较了两种不同的感激表达——一种是指个人的善良性格（即亲社会性格），另一种是指个人的善良行为（即亲社会行为）——如何影响未来的亲社会行为，并使用两项高强度的预注册研究，将其与无感激控制条件进行比较。在两项研究中，参与者(实验1的603名本科生；在实验2中，876名在线成人参与了一项亲社会任务，然后被随机分配到两种感激表达中的一种或不感激的控制条件下。之后，参与者有机会再次提供帮助。比较不同条件下的助人率，我们发现实验1中的助人行为没有显著差异。然而，在实验2中，结果表明，收到感谢表达的个体，无论内容如何，比只收到感谢的个体捐赠更多。我们将这些发现解释为对感恩作为道德强化物功能的混合支持，并考虑为什么提及个人慷慨性格的感恩表达与行为的感恩表达可能影响不大。

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引用次数: 0

Too much information? A systematic investigation of the antecedents and consequences of ambivalence-induced information seeking behavior 信息太多？对矛盾心理诱导的信息寻求行为的前因和后果的系统研究

IF 3.1 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-29 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104783

Benjamin Buttlar , Anna Lambrich , Linda McCaughey , Iris K. Schneider

People regularly have to navigate decisions about which they feel ambivalent, for instance, regarding unhealthy food, recycling, or financial investments. It is assumed that people cope with such felt ambivalence by seeking information that sways their ambivalent attitudes (potential ambivalence) about these topics. However, empirical evidence for this proposition is scarce because most studies measure information seeking intentions instead of behavior. As such, it remains doubtful whether information seeking indeed helps people to reduce felt ambivalence while making decisions. To test this proposition, we adapted a sample-based information seeking paradigm that enabled us to measure actual information seeking behavior in financial decisions. In four preregistered studies (total N = 542 participants; k = 16.538 decisions), we demonstrated that when people feel ambivalent about an initial set of information about a stock, they seek more information about its development to decide whether it develops positively or negatively; this information seeking, in turn, helps them to reduce felt ambivalence when making the decision. However, this is only the case when the initial information is ambivalent and the sought information is univalent; otherwise, information seeking increases felt ambivalence. This supports a central proposition in ambivalence research, indicating that people can indeed solve their felt ambivalence through information seeking. However, our data also showed that the effect of information seeking on felt ambivalence cannot be fully explained by changes in potential ambivalence and a resolution of the attitudinal basis of the conflict. Future research should, therefore, examine whether and how information seeking can also serve as an emotion-focused coping strategy that helps people reduce felt ambivalence by coping with conflict-induced discomfort.

人们经常不得不在他们感到矛盾的事情上做出决定，例如，关于不健康食品、回收或金融投资。假设人们通过寻找信息来改变他们对这些话题的矛盾态度（潜在的矛盾态度）来应对这种矛盾心理。然而，这一命题的经验证据很少，因为大多数研究衡量的是信息寻求意图而不是行为。因此，信息搜寻是否真的能帮助人们在做决定时减少矛盾心理仍然值得怀疑。为了验证这一命题，我们采用了一种基于样本的信息寻求范式，使我们能够衡量财务决策中实际的信息寻求行为。在四项预注册研究中(共N = 542名受试者；K = 16.538个决定)，我们证明了当人们对一组关于股票的初始信息感到矛盾时，他们会寻求更多关于股票发展的信息，以决定它是积极的还是消极的；这种信息搜寻反过来又能帮助他们减少做决定时的矛盾心理。然而，这只是在初始信息是矛盾的，而所寻求的信息是一元的情况下才会发生；否则，信息寻求会增加矛盾心理。这支持了矛盾心理研究中的一个中心命题，即人们确实可以通过信息寻找来解决自己的矛盾心理。然而，我们的数据也表明，信息寻求对感觉矛盾心理的影响不能完全用潜在矛盾心理的变化和冲突的态度基础的解决来解释。因此，未来的研究应该检查信息寻求是否以及如何也可以作为一种以情绪为中心的应对策略，帮助人们通过应对冲突引起的不适来减少矛盾心理。

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引用次数: 0

Status- and foreignness-based discrimination experiences shape feelings of similarity among people of color 基于身份和外国人的歧视经历塑造了有色人种之间的相似感

IF 3.1 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-29 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104794

Linda X. Zou , Samuel Ngum

A sense of similar disadvantage is crucial to fostering solidarity between people of color. But although people of color share a general experience with racial discrimination, the specific nature of those experiences can vary. Using the Racial Position Model as a theoretical framework, four studies (N = 2107) examined how distinct outgroup discrimination experiences along the axes of perceived status and cultural foreignness impact perceptions of similarity between people of color. In Study 1, Asian, Black, and Latine Americans' perceptions of similarity with each other were predicted by their beliefs about outgroup discrimination. Exposure to outgroup experiences with foreignness-based discrimination increased Asian Americans' perceived similarity with Black and Latine Americans (Studies 2 & 4), while exposure to outgroup experiences with status-based discrimination increased Black Americans' perceived similarity with Asian and Latine Americans (Studies 3 & 4). Perceived similarity, in turn, predicted greater willingness to engage in collective action on behalf of the outgroup (Studies 2–4). Our findings suggest that perceptions of similarity between people of color are bolstered by the salience of outgroup experiences along the specific axis of discrimination most prominent in the ingroup's experiences. Group experiences along the dual axes of perceived status and cultural foreignness may thus be leveraged to forge stronger coalitions among people of color.

类似的劣势感对于促进有色人种之间的团结至关重要。但是，尽管有色人种对种族歧视有着共同的经历，但这些经历的具体性质却各不相同。以种族地位模型为理论框架，四项研究（N = 2107）考察了沿感知地位和文化异域性轴的不同外群体歧视经历如何影响有色人种之间的相似性感知。在研究1中，亚洲人、黑人和拉丁美洲人对彼此相似性的感知是通过他们对群体外歧视的信念来预测的。接触到基于外国人的歧视的外群体经历增加了亚裔美国人与黑人和拉丁美洲人的感知相似性(研究2 & &；4)，而暴露于基于地位的歧视的外群体经历增加了黑人与亚洲和拉丁美洲人的感知相似性(研究3 & &；4）. 感知到的相似性，反过来，预示着更大的意愿参与代表外群体的集体行动（研究2-4）。我们的研究结果表明，有色人种之间的相似性感知是由外群体经历的显著性支持的，而外群体经历在内群体经历中最为突出。因此，沿着感知地位和文化异域性的双轴的群体经历可能会被用来在有色人种之间建立更强大的联盟。

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引用次数: 0

Using two-sided messages to facilitate misinformation correction for strongly held beliefs 使用双面信息来促进对强烈信念的错误信息纠正

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104807

Mengran Xu , Richard E. Petty

In the U.S. and around the world, the dissemination of misinformation has become a widespread issue, and efforts to correct it have faced significant challenges. Prior research on influencing strong attitudes has shown that using two-sided (vs. one-sided) messages can be more effective in producing attitude change. Although there is a long history of research examining two-sided persuasive messages, this has never been examined in the context of misinformation correction. Rather, misinformation correction messages are invariably one-sided. Across two studies (N = 869), we extend the outcome observed in the persuasion domain to the context of debunking misinformation. Study 1, focused on a widespread but incorrect political belief regarding the 2020 U.S. election, and a preregistered Study 2, examined the correction of misinformation regarding a health belief (i.e., FDA withholding cancer treatment). Both studies demonstrated that a two-sided (vs. one-sided) correction message became more effective as the strength of individuals' belief in the misinformation increased. People's openness to the two-sided correction message was driven by their enhanced appreciation of the source acknowledging their view and the source's credibility. This openness, in turn, was associated with more favorable beliefs in the correct information. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the effectiveness of using two-sided messages as a strategic tool for combating misinformation among those whose beliefs in the misinformation are strong.

在美国和世界各地，错误信息的传播已经成为一个普遍存在的问题，纠正错误信息的努力面临着重大挑战。先前关于影响强烈态度的研究表明，使用双面（相对于单面）信息可以更有效地产生态度改变。尽管对双面说服信息的研究已有很长的历史，但从未在错误信息纠正的背景下进行过研究。相反，错误信息纠正信息总是片面的。在两项研究中（N = 869），我们将在说服领域观察到的结果扩展到揭穿错误信息的背景下。研究1侧重于关于2020年美国大选的普遍但不正确的政治信念，而预注册的研究2检查了关于健康信念（即FDA拒绝癌症治疗）的错误信息的纠正。两项研究都表明，当个人对错误信息的信念增强时，双面（与单面）纠正信息变得更有效。人们对双面更正信息的开放程度是由他们对消息来源的欣赏程度提高、认可他们的观点和消息来源的可信度所驱动的。这种开放性反过来又与对正确信息的更有利的信念有关。综上所述，这些发现表明，在那些对错误信息深信不疑的人中间，使用双面信息作为打击错误信息的战略工具是有效的。

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引用次数: 0

Change, yes ‘we’ can: Protesting for (ingroup) and against (outgroup) change under conditions of threatened personal control 改变，是的“我们”可以：在个人控制受到威胁的情况下，抗议（内部）和（外部）变化

IF 3.1 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104803

Johannes Michael Lautenbacher, Immo Fritsche, Tina-Marie Hoke, Wanda Eckert

Personal control loss and crisis have been proposed to affect people's attitudes towards social change, but there is controversy about how. From an uncertainty reduction perspective (i.e., Compensatory Control Theory), people should typically reject social change under conditions of threatened personal control. From the perspective of Group-Based Control Theory, however, social change can serve as a means to restore people's sense of control through their social self (i.e., on a collective identity level). Thus, people should welcome ingroup-initiated change following threat. Integrating these perspectives, the Integrated Stage Model of Extended and Secondary Control (INSMESC) proposes that individuals initially attempt to restore control through group-based strategies – such as supporting ingroup-led change – as a form of extended primary control. Only when such group-based approaches are unavailable or appear ineffective do individuals resort to uncertainty-reducing strategies as a secondary control approach. Across three studies (N = 260, 431, 510), manipulated control threat reduced support for outrgroup-initiated change. However, the studies provided strong evidence that this effect was absent when change was driven by an ingroup. Further corroborating the primacy of group-based control, in Studies 4 and 5 (N = 219, 616), control threat even increased attitudinal support for ingroup-initiated change, but not for ingroup-led efforts to preserve the status quo. This suggests that social change is only perceived as threatening when it is not an ingroup initiative, and that it can even buffer feelings of personal control loss by highlighting the collective efficacy of a relevant social ingroup.

个人控制丧失和危机已经被提出影响人们对社会变化的态度，但如何影响却存在争议。从不确定性减少的角度（即补偿控制理论）来看，在个人控制受到威胁的情况下，人们通常应该拒绝社会变革。然而，从群体控制理论的角度来看，社会变革可以作为一种手段，通过人们的社会自我（即在集体认同层面）来恢复人们的控制感。因此，人们应该欢迎在受到威胁后由群体发起的改变。综合这些观点，扩展和次要控制的综合阶段模型（INSMESC）提出，个体最初试图通过基于群体的策略（如支持群体内主导的变革）作为扩展主要控制的一种形式来恢复控制。只有当这种基于群体的方法不可用或显得无效时，个人才会采取减少不确定性的策略作为次要控制方法。在三项研究中（N = 260、431、510），被操纵的控制威胁降低了对群体外发起变革的支持。然而，研究提供了强有力的证据表明，当变化是由内部团体推动时，这种影响就不存在了。研究4和研究5 （N = 219,616）进一步证实了群体控制的重要性，控制威胁甚至增加了对内部群体发起的变革的态度支持，但对内部群体主导的维持现状的努力却没有。这表明，社会变革只有在不是内部群体的主动行动时才会被视为威胁，而且它甚至可以通过强调相关社会内部群体的集体效力来缓冲个人控制丧失的感觉。

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引用次数: 0

Face perception in context: Allocentric distance in perceptions of facial gender 语境中的面部知觉：面部性别知觉中的异中心距离

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104795

Spencer Dobbs , Lindsay Goolsby , Wesley Mysinger , Max Weisbuch

We examined how allocentric distance between faces influences perceptions of facial gender. Indeed, faces are often observed in social contexts (i.e., with other faces) and given that social cognition functions, in part, to help people manage a complex network of relationships, it is possible that face perception is tuned to relational variables such as social distance. In the current work, we examined whether the spatial distance between faces shapes the degree to which gender judgments of a target face are contrasted from the gender of the co-present face. In three studies, pairs of faces were briefly presented, and participants were tasked with evaluating the gender of one face in the pair. We manipulated the spatial distance between faces in a pair to be “near”, “intermediate”, and “far”. In Studies 2–3, we added a pre-cue/post-cue manipulation to examine the spontaneity of social distance effects. In all studies, we observed an effect of social distance, such that gender judgments of a target face were more likely to be contrasted against the gender of the co-present face when the distance between the faces was far versus near. The results of Studies 2–3 suggest that the effects of social distance on judgments of face gender are unintentional or spontaneous in nature. Moreover, results from all studies suggest that the effects of social distance on judgments of facial gender reflect categorical concepts of distance (“near” versus “far”) rather than linear effects that increase with each increase in distance.

我们研究了面部之间的偏心距离如何影响面部性别的感知。事实上，面孔通常是在社会环境中观察到的（即，与其他面孔一起观察），并且考虑到社会认知功能在一定程度上帮助人们管理复杂的关系网络，面孔感知有可能被调整为关系变量，如社会距离。在目前的工作中，我们研究了面部之间的空间距离是否会影响目标面部的性别判断与共同在场面部的性别判断的对比程度。在三项研究中，研究人员简要展示了几对面孔，参与者的任务是评估其中一张面孔的性别。我们将一对面孔之间的空间距离设置为“近”、“中”和“远”。在研究2-3中，我们增加了提示前/提示后操作来检验社会距离效应的自发性。在所有的研究中，我们都观察到社会距离的影响，当两张脸之间的距离相对较远时，对目标脸的性别判断更有可能与共同在场的脸的性别判断形成对比。研究2-3的结果表明，社会距离对面孔性别判断的影响是无意识的或自发的。此外，所有研究的结果都表明，社会距离对面部性别判断的影响反映了距离的分类概念（“近”与“远”），而不是随着距离的增加而增加的线性效应。

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引用次数: 0

Group and personal rejection are similarly linked to extreme intergroup attitudes 群体和个人的排斥同样与极端的群体间态度有关

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104788

Luis Marcos-Vidal , Boryana Todorova , Scott Atran , Clara Pretus

Perceived marginalization of social groups has been identified as one of the main drivers of violent extremism across countries. However, most psychological research has focused on interpersonal rather than intergroup processes to understand the link between social exclusion and aggression. We developed a new paradigm, RateME, which dissociates the effects of group rejection and personal rejection, two types of social exclusion that involve negative attention. We compared the psychological effects of group rejection with those of personal rejection using RateME as well as ostracism using Cyberball in a sample of more than 1200 UK residents. Experiencing group rejection, personal rejection, and ostracism was independently associated with increased psychological distress and state hostility, regardless of participants' degree of identification with the group. Exclusion of either type also indirectly increased group supremacist attitudes by undermining psychological needs and indirectly increased extreme intergroup attitudes by increasing state hostility. Our work reveals similar detrimental psychological effects of group-level and personal-level exclusion, highlighting group rejection as a risk factor for mental health with potential implications for violent extremism.

社会群体被明显边缘化已被确定为各国暴力极端主义的主要驱动因素之一。然而，大多数心理学研究都集中在人际关系上，而不是群体间的过程，以理解社会排斥和攻击之间的联系。我们开发了一个新的范式，RateME，它分离了群体排斥和个人排斥的影响，这两种类型的社会排斥涉及到负面注意。我们在1200多名英国居民的样本中，用RateME比较了群体拒绝和个人拒绝的心理影响，用Cyberball比较了排斥的心理影响。无论参与者对群体的认同程度如何，经历群体排斥、个人排斥和排斥都与心理困扰和国家敌意的增加独立相关。任何一种类型的排斥都间接地通过破坏心理需求而增加了群体至上主义的态度，并通过增加国家敌意间接地增加了极端的群体间态度。我们的工作揭示了群体层面和个人层面的排斥对心理健康的类似有害影响，强调群体排斥是心理健康的风险因素，对暴力极端主义有潜在影响。

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引用次数: 0

The evolved psychology of mate preferences: Sexual desire underlies the prioritization of attractiveness in long-term partners 进化的伴侣偏好心理学：性欲是长期伴侣优先考虑吸引力的基础

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104791

Sierra D. Peters , Jon K. Maner , Andrea L. Meltzer

Although existing evolutionary psychological research provides insight into the ultimate reproductive functions underlying long-term romantic partner preferences, such research has generally stopped short of identifying the proximate affective and motivational mechanisms that drive those preferences. Findings from three studies comprising four independent samples (total N = 2099) provide evidence that sexual desire is a proximate mechanism underlying prioritization of attractiveness in long-term partners. Sex differences and individual differences in sociosexuality were associated with prioritization of long-term partner attractiveness and those associations were statistically mediated by levels of chronic sexual desire (Study 1). Experimentally activating a state of high sexual desire increased males' and females' prioritization of attractiveness to an equivalent degree (Study 2). Experimentally reducing the relevance of sexual desire in people's mate preferences decreased prioritization of attractiveness in both males and females (Study 3). These studies integrate ultimate and proximate perspectives to provide novel insight into the role situationally activated motivational states play in shaping long-term partner preferences.

虽然现有的进化心理学研究提供了对长期浪漫伴侣偏好的最终生殖功能的见解，但这些研究通常没有确定驱动这些偏好的直接情感和动机机制。由四个独立样本组成的三项研究（总N = 2099）的结果证明，性欲是长期伴侣优先考虑吸引力的近似机制。性别差异和社会性行为的个体差异与长期伴侣吸引力的优先级相关，这些关联在统计上受慢性性欲水平的调节（研究1）。通过实验，激活性欲旺盛的状态会在同等程度上增加男性和女性对吸引力的优先级（研究2）。在实验中，降低人们择偶偏好中性欲的相关性会降低男性和女性对吸引力的优先级（研究3）。这些研究整合了终极视角和近似视角，为情境激活的动机状态在形成长期伴侣偏好方面的作用提供了新的见解。

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引用次数: 0

Common ingroup meta-identification: A meta-perception perspective to dynamically promote intergroup attitudes in status asymmetry contexts 共同群体内元认同：地位不对称背景下动态促进群体间态度的元感知视角

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104793

Wenlin Ke , Fangfang Wen , Bin Zuo

Building upon the application of common ingroup identity in intergroup relations and the meta-perception perspective, this study innovatively introduces the concept of Common Ingroup Meta-Identification (CIMI), defined as individuals' perceptions regarding the identification of various subgroups with a common ingroup. Through four experiments, the research systematically examines both the effects of CIMI on intergroup attitudes and the moderating role of group status, using Agent-Based Modeling to simulate the underlying dynamic processes. The results indicated that manipulating CIMI effectively affected intergroup attitudes in both real groups and minimal groups (Study 1 and Study 2). Notably, CIMI from high-status groups exhibited a more pronounced effect, particularly when low-status groups perceived low level CIMI from high-status groups (Study 3A). The ABM simulation results in Study 3B revealed that at the group level, even a small number of individuals with strong shared group identity could trigger widespread improvements in intergroup attitudes, as their positive influence spreads through mutual CIMI. The starting level of this shared identity, especially in higher-status groups, played a pivotal role in determining whether attitudes became sustainably positive or regressed to negativity. These findings suggest that manipulating CIMI serves as an effective strategy for enhancing intergroup relations, providing a flexible approach to fostering mutual understanding among diverse nations, ethnicities, and cultures of different status.

基于共同内群体认同在群体间关系中的应用和元感知视角，本研究创新性地引入了共同内群体元认同（CIMI）的概念，将其定义为个体对不同子群体与共同内群体的认同的感知。本研究通过四个实验，系统地考察了CIMI对群体间态度的影响和群体地位的调节作用，并采用基于agent的模型模拟了其潜在的动态过程。结果表明，操纵CIMI有效地影响了真实组和最小组的群体间态度（研究1和研究2）。值得注意的是，来自高地位群体的CIMI表现出更明显的效果，特别是当低地位群体感知到来自高地位群体的低水平CIMI时（研究3A）。研究3B中的ABM模拟结果显示，在群体层面上，即使是少数具有强烈共同群体认同的个体，也可以引发群体间态度的广泛改善，因为他们的积极影响通过相互的CIMI传播。这种共同身份的起始水平，特别是在地位较高的群体中，在决定态度是持续积极还是倒退到消极方面起着关键作用。这些发现表明，操纵CIMI是加强群体间关系的有效策略，为促进不同国家、种族和文化之间的相互理解提供了一种灵活的方法。

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引用次数: 0

Testing “quarantined” metarepresentational accounts of Theory of Mind: Are we biased by others' false beliefs? 测试“隔离”的心智理论的元表征：我们是否被他人的错误信念所偏见？

IF 3.2 2区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-07-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104785

Steven Samuel , Robert Lurz , Daizi Davies , Harry Axtell , Sarah K. Salo

An important component of Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the beliefs (true or false) of others. Arguably the most widely-held view is that this is performed by a detached belief-representation process (e.g., metarepresenting that another agent has a belief about the world which one does not share). The standard belief-representation account posits a separation between one's own first-order representations of the physical environment and one's second-order representations of another agent's mental states, preventing the latter from infecting the former. An alternative process is engaged belief-simulation (e.g., imaginatively adopting another agent's belief about the world) which, in contrast to standard belief-representation, posits a correspondence in the mental states shared by oneself and another agent and predicts an influence of the other agent's beliefs on one's own first-order representations and egocentric actions. In the first two of three studies, a participant and an agent watched an object buried in a continuous space (sandbox). The participant then watched the same object moved from the first location to a new location. When participants were asked to search for the object, they demonstrated a bias towards the first location when the agent falsely believed the object to be there but not when the agent knew, like the participant, that the object was in the new location. Reasoning that the strength of this bias may have been limited by participants' knowledge of the object's true whereabouts, in a third and final study we hid the movement of the object so that participants did not know its true location. We also recruited a greater number of participants to increase statistical power. Contrary to expectations, there was now no evidence of belief infection. Overall, these results are more consistent with a belief-representation account for (human) adults' understanding of others' belief states.

心理理论的一个重要组成部分是理解他人信仰（对或错）的能力。可以说，最广泛持有的观点是，这是通过一个分离的信念-表征过程（例如，元表征，另一个代理对世界有一个信念，而这个信念是一个不共享的）来执行的。标准的信念表征理论假定在一个人对物理环境的一阶表征和对另一个人的精神状态的二阶表征之间存在分离，以防止后者感染前者。另一个过程是参与信念模拟（例如，想象地采用另一个主体对世界的信念），与标准的信念表征相反，它假设自己和另一个主体共享的心理状态是对应的，并预测另一个主体的信念对自己一阶表征和自我中心行为的影响。在三个研究中的前两个中，一个参与者和一个代理人观看一个埋在连续空间（沙盒）中的物体。然后，参与者观看相同的物体从第一个位置移动到一个新的位置。当参与者被要求寻找物体时，当代理人错误地认为物体在那里时，他们表现出对第一个位置的偏见，但当代理人像参与者一样知道物体在新位置时，他们就不会这样做。考虑到这种偏见的强度可能受到参与者对物体真实位置的了解的限制，在第三个也是最后一个研究中，我们隐藏了物体的运动，这样参与者就不知道它的真实位置。我们还招募了更多的参与者来增加统计能力。与预期相反，现在没有证据表明存在信念感染。总的来说，这些结果更符合（人类）成年人对他人信念状态的理解的信念表征解释。

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