IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106011

Peng Liu, Yueying Chu, Siming Zhai, Tingru Zhang, Edmond Awad

Machines powered by artificial intelligence have the potential to replace or collaborate with human decision-makers in moral settings. In these roles, machines would face moral tradeoffs, such as automated vehicles (AVs) distributing inevitable risks among road users. Do people believe that machines should make moral decisions differently from humans? If so, why? To address these questions, we conducted six studies (N = 6805) to examine how people, as observers, believe human drivers and AVs should act in similar moral dilemmas and how they judge their moral decisions. In pedestrian-only dilemmas where the two agents had to sacrifice one pedestrian to save more pedestrians, participants held them to similar utilitarian norms (Study 1). In occupant dilemmas where the agents needed to weigh the in-vehicle occupant against more pedestrians, participants were less accepting of AVs sacrificing their passenger compared to human drivers sacrificing themselves (Studies 1-3) or another passenger (Studies 5-6). The difference was not driven by reduced occupant agency in AVs (Study 4) or by non-voluntary occupant sacrifice in AVs (Study 5), but rather by the perceived social relationship between AVs and their users (Study 6). Thus, even when people adopt an impartial stance as observers, they are more likely to believe that AVs should prioritize serving their users in moral dilemmas. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications for AV morality.

人工智能驱动的机器有可能在道德领域取代人类决策者或与人类决策者合作。在这些角色中，机器将面临道德权衡，例如自动驾驶汽车（AV）在道路使用者之间分配不可避免的风险。人们是否认为机器在做出道德决定时应与人类有所不同？如果是，为什么？为了解决这些问题，我们进行了六项研究（N = 6805），以考察作为观察者的人们认为人类驾驶员和自动驾驶汽车在类似的道德困境中应如何行动，以及他们如何判断自己的道德决策。在只有行人的困境中，两个驾驶员必须牺牲一名行人以拯救更多行人，参与者认为他们的功利准则相似（研究 1）。在乘员困境中，驾驶员需要权衡车内乘员和更多行人，与人类驾驶员牺牲自己（研究 1-3）或另一名乘客（研究 5-6）相比，参与者对自动驾驶汽车牺牲乘客的接受度较低。造成这种差异的原因并不是自动驾驶汽车中乘员代理权的降低（研究 4），也不是自动驾驶汽车中乘员的非自愿牺牲（研究 5），而是自动驾驶汽车与其使用者之间的社会关系（研究 6）。因此，即使人们作为观察者采取公正的立场，他们也更有可能认为，在道德困境中，自动驾驶汽车应优先为其用户服务。我们将讨论 AV 道德的理论和实践意义。

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引用次数: 0

Relative source credibility affects the continued influence effect: Evidence of rationality in the CIE. 相对来源可信度影响持续影响效应：CIE 中的理性证据。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106000

Carolin V Hey, Marie Luisa Schaper, Ute J Bayen

The Continued Influence Effect (CIE) is the phenomenon that retracted information often continues to influence judgments and inferences. The CIE is rational when the source that retracts the information (the retractor) is less credible than the source that originally presented the information (the informant; Connor Desai et al., 2020). Conversely, a CIE is not rational when the retractor is at least as credible as the informant. Thus, a rational account predicts that the CIE depends on the relative credibility of informant and retractor. In two experiments (N = 151, N = 146), informant credibility and retractor credibility were independently manipulated. Participants read a fictitious news report in which original information and a retraction were each presented by either a source with high credibility or a source with low credibility. In both experiments, when the informant was more credible than the retractor, participants showed a CIE compared to control participants who saw neither the information nor the retraction (ds > 0.82). When the informant was less credible than the retractor, participants showed no CIE, in line with a rational account. However, in Experiment 2, participants also showed a CIE when informant and retractor were equally credible (ds > 0.51). This cannot be explained by a rational account, but is consistent with error-based accounts of the CIE. Thus, a rational account alone cannot fully account for the complete pattern of results, but needs to be complemented with accounts that view the CIE as a memory-based error.

持续影响效应（CIE）是指被撤回的信息往往会继续影响人们的判断和推论。当撤回信息的来源（撤回者）的可信度低于最初提供信息的来源（提供者；Connor Desai et al.）反之，如果撤回信息者的可信度至少与提供信息者相当，那么 CIE 就不是理性的。因此，从理性的角度来看，CIE 取决于信息提供者和信息收回者的相对可信度。在两个实验中（N = 151，N = 146），告知者可信度和转述者可信度被独立操纵。参与者阅读了一篇虚构的新闻报道，在这篇报道中，原始信息和撤回信息分别由可信度高或可信度低的信息来源提供。在这两项实验中，当提供信息者比撤回信息者更可信时，与既没有看到信息也没有看到撤回信息的对照组参与者相比，参与者都表现出了 CIE（ds > 0.82）。当信息提供者的可信度低于撤回者时，参与者没有表现出 CIE，这与理性解释相符。然而，在实验 2 中，当提供信息者和撤回信息者的可信度相同时，参与者也表现出了 CIE（ds > 0.51）。这不能用理性解释来解释，而是与基于错误的 CIE 解释相一致。因此，仅凭理性解释并不能完全解释完整的结果模式，还需要将 CIE 视为基于记忆的错误的解释来补充。

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引用次数: 0

Decoding face identity: A reverse-correlation approach using deep learning 解码人脸身份：利用深度学习的反向相关方法。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106008

Xue Tian , Yiying Song , Jia Liu

Face recognition is crucial for social interactions. Traditional approaches primarily rely on subjective judgment, utilizing a pre-selected set of facial features based on literature or intuition to identify critical facial features for face recognition. In this study, we adopted a reverse-correlation approach, aligning responses of a deep convolutional neural network (DCNN) with its internal representations to objectively identify facial features pivotal for face recognition. Specifically, we trained a DCNN, namely VGG-FD, to possess human-like capability in discriminating facial identities. A representational similarity analysis (RSA) was employed to characterize VGG-FD's performance metrics, which was subsequently reverse-correlated with its representations in layers capable of discriminating facial identities. Our analysis revealed a higher likelihood of face pairs being perceived as different identities when their representations significantly differed in areas such as the eyes, eyebrows, or central facial region, suggesting the significance of the eyes as facial parts and the central facial region as an integral of face configuration in face recognition. In summary, our study leveraged DCNNs to identify critical facial features for face discrimination in a hypothesis-neutral, data-driven manner, hereby advocating for the adoption of this new paradigm to explore critical facial features across various face recognition tasks.

人脸识别对于社会交往至关重要。传统方法主要依赖于主观判断，利用根据文献或直觉预先选择的一组面部特征来识别人脸识别的关键面部特征。在本研究中，我们采用了一种反向相关方法，将深度卷积神经网络（DCNN）的响应与其内部表征相一致，从而客观地识别出人脸识别中至关重要的面部特征。具体来说，我们训练了一个 DCNN，即 VGG-FD，使其在辨别人脸身份方面具有与人类类似的能力。我们采用了表征相似性分析（RSA）来描述 VGG-FD 的性能指标，随后将其与能够辨别人脸身份的层中的表征进行反向关联。我们的分析表明，如果人脸对在眼睛、眉毛或面部中央区域等区域的表征存在显著差异，那么人脸对被视为不同身份的可能性就会更高，这表明眼睛作为面部的一部分以及面部中央区域作为人脸识别中面部配置的一个组成部分具有重要意义。总之，我们的研究利用 DCNNs 以假设中立、数据驱动的方式识别了人脸识别的关键面部特征，从而倡导采用这种新范式来探索各种人脸识别任务中的关键面部特征。

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引用次数: 0

How does color distribution learning affect goal-directed visuomotor behavior? 颜色分布学习如何影响目标导向的视觉运动行为？

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106002

Léa Entzmann , Árni Gunnar Ásgeirsson , Árni Kristjánsson

While the visual world is rich and complex, importantly, it nevertheless contains many statistical regularities. For example, environmental feature distributions tend to remain relatively stable from one moment to the next. Recent findings have shown how observers can learn surprising details of environmental color distributions, even when the colors belong to actively ignored stimuli such as distractors in visual search. Our aim was to determine whether such learning influences orienting in the visual environment, measured with saccadic eye movements. In two visual search experiments, observers had to find an odd-one-out target. Firstly, we tested cases where observers selected targets by fixating them. Secondly, we measured saccadic eye movements when observers made judgments on the target and responded manually. Trials were structured in blocks, containing learning trials where distractors came from the same color distribution (uniform or Gaussian) while on subsequent test trials, the target was at different distances from the mean of the learning distractor distribution. For both manual and saccadic measures, performance improved throughout the learning trials and was better when the distractor colors came from a Gaussian distribution. Moreover, saccade latencies during test trials depended on the distance between the color of the current target and the distractors on learning trials, replicating results obtained with manual responses. Latencies were slowed when the target color was within the learning distractor color distribution and also revealed that observers learned the difference between uniform and Gaussian distributions. The importance of several variables in predicting saccadic and manual reaction times was studied using random forests, revealing similar rankings for both modalities, although previous distractor color had a higher impact on free eye movements. Overall, our results demonstrate learning of detailed characteristics of environmental color distributions that affects early attentional selection rather than later decisional processes.

视觉世界丰富而复杂，但重要的是，它包含许多统计规律。例如，环境特征分布在不同时刻往往保持相对稳定。最近的研究结果表明，观察者可以学习到环境颜色分布的惊人细节，即使这些颜色属于视觉搜索中被主动忽略的刺激物（如干扰物）。我们的目的是确定这种学习是否会影响视觉环境中的定向，并用眼球移动来测量。在两个视觉搜索实验中，观察者必须找到一个奇异的目标。首先，我们测试了观察者通过固定目标来选择目标的情况。其次，我们测量了观察者对目标做出判断并手动做出反应时的眼球回旋运动。试验以块为单位，其中包含学习试验，在学习试验中，干扰物来自相同的颜色分布（均匀分布或高斯分布），而在随后的测试试验中，目标物与学习干扰物分布的平均值距离不同。在徒手和囊回测量中，整个学习试验过程中的成绩都有所提高，而当干扰物的颜色来自高斯分布时，成绩会更好。此外，测试试验中的囊回延迟取决于当前目标颜色与学习试验中的干扰物颜色之间的距离，这与手动反应的结果相同。当目标颜色在学习干扰物颜色分布范围内时，延迟会减慢，这也表明观察者学会了均匀分布和高斯分布之间的区别。我们使用随机森林研究了几个变量在预测飞蚊症和手动反应时间中的重要性，结果显示两种模式的排名相似，但先前的分心颜色对自由眼球运动的影响更大。总之，我们的研究结果表明，对环境颜色分布详细特征的学习会影响早期的注意选择，而不是后期的决策过程。

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引用次数: 0

Bias-free measure of distractor avoidance in visual search 视觉搜索中避免分心的无偏测量方法

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-14 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106007

Xiaojin Ma , Richard A. Abrams

Recent findings suggest that it is possible for people to proactively avoid attentional capture by salient distractors during visual search. The results have important implications for understanding the competing influences of top-down and bottom-up factors in visual attention. Nevertheless, questions remain regarding the extent to which apparently ignored distractors are processed. To assess distractor processing, previous experiments have used a probe method in which stimuli are occasionally superimposed on the search display–requiring participants to abort the search and identify the probe stimuli. It has been recently shown that such probe tasks may be vulnerable to decision-level biases, such as a participant's willingness to report stimuli on to-be-ignored items. We report here results from a new method that is not subject to this limitation. In the new method, the non-target search elements, including the salient distractors, contained features that were either congruent or incongruent with the target. Processing of the non-target elements is inferred from the effects of the compatibility of the shared features on judgments about the target. In four experiments using the technique we show that ignored salient distractors are indeed processed less fully than non-target elements that are not salient, replicating the results of earlier studies using the probe methods. Additionally, the processing of the distractors was found to be reduced at least in part at early perceptual or attentional stages, as assumed by models of attentional suppression. The study confirms the proactive avoidance of capture by salient distractors measured without decision-level biases and provides a new technique for assessing the magnitude of distractor processing.

最近的研究结果表明，人们有可能在视觉搜索过程中主动避免被突出的分心物吸引注意力。这些结果对于理解视觉注意力中自上而下和自下而上因素的相互影响具有重要意义。尽管如此，人们对明显被忽略的分心物的处理程度仍然存在疑问。为了评估分心物的处理情况，以往的实验采用了一种探测法，即在搜索显示屏上偶尔叠加一些刺激物，要求被试中止搜索并识别探测刺激物。最近的研究表明，这种探究任务可能容易受到决策层面偏差的影响，例如被试愿意报告即将被忽略的项目上的刺激物。我们在此报告一种不受此限制的新方法的结果。在新方法中，非目标搜索元素（包括突出的干扰物）包含与目标一致或不一致的特征。对非目标元素的处理是通过共享特征的兼容性对目标判断的影响来推断的。在使用该技术进行的四次实验中，我们发现被忽略的突出分心元素的处理确实不如不突出的非目标元素那么充分，这与之前使用探针法进行的研究结果相同。此外，我们还发现，至少在早期知觉或注意阶段，对分心元素的处理会部分减少，这与注意抑制模型所假设的一样。这项研究证实了在没有决策水平偏差的情况下测得的主动避免被突出分心物捕获的结果，并提供了一种评估分心物加工程度的新技术。

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引用次数: 0

Signaling (in)tolerance: Social evaluation and metaethical relativism and objectivism 发出（不）宽容的信号：社会评价与元伦理相对主义和客观主义。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105984

David Moss , Andres Montealegre , Lance S. Bush , Lucius Caviola , David Pizarro

Prior work has established that laypeople do not consistently treat moral questions as being objectively true or as merely true relative to different perspectives. Rather, these metaethical judgments vary dramatically across moral issues and in response to different social influences. We offer a potential explanation by examining how objectivists and relativists are evaluated in different contexts. We provide evidence for a novel account of metaethical judgments as signaling tolerance or intolerance of disagreement. The social implications of signaling tolerance or intolerance in different contexts may motivate different metaethical judgments. Study 1 finds that relativists are perceived as more tolerant, empathic, having superior moral character, and as more desirable as social partners than objectivists. Study 2 replicates these findings with a within-participants design and also shows that objectivists are perceived as more morally serious than relativists. Study 3 examines evaluations of objectivists and relativists regarding concrete moral issues, finding these results vary across situations of moral agreement and disagreement. Study 4 finds that participants' metaethical stances likewise vary when responding in the way they think would make a person who agrees or disagrees with them evaluate them more positively. However, in Study 5, we find no effect on metaethical judgment of telling participants they will be evaluated by a person who agrees or disagrees with them, which suggests either a failure to induce reputational concerns or a more limited influence of reputational considerations on metaethical judgments, despite strong effects on social evaluation.

先前的研究已经证实，非专业人士在对待道德问题时，并不会一味地认为这些问题是客观真实的，或者仅仅是相对于不同观点而言是真实的。相反，在不同的道德问题和不同的社会影响下，这些元道德判断会有很大的不同。我们通过研究客观论者和相对论者在不同情境下的评价方式，提供了一种可能的解释。我们为元道德判断作为容忍或不容忍不同意见的信号的新说法提供了证据。在不同情境中表示容忍或不容忍所产生的社会影响可能会促使人们做出不同的元伦理判断。研究 1 发现，相对主义者被认为比客观主义者更宽容、更富有同情心、道德品质更高尚、更适合作为社会伙伴。研究 2 采用参与者内部设计复制了这些研究结果，并显示客观论者比相对论者被认为在道德上更严肃。研究 3 考察了客观论者和相对论者对具体道德问题的评价，发现这些结果在道德一致和不一致的情况下有所不同。研究 4 发现，当参与者以他们认为会让同意或不同意他们的人对他们做出更积极评价的方式做出反应时，他们的元道德立场同样会发生变化。然而，在研究 5 中，我们发现告诉参与者他们将被同意或不同意他们的人评价时，对他们的元伦理判断没有影响，这表明尽管对社会评价有很大的影响，但要么没有诱发声誉方面的考虑，要么声誉方面的考虑对元伦理判断的影响比较有限。

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引用次数: 0

Possible reasons for reductive seductions: A reply to Wilson et al. 还原诱惑的可能原因：对威尔逊等人的答复

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106003

Deena Skolnick Weisberg

Wilson et al. (2025) report a failed attempt to replicate the reductive allure effect: Unlike prior work, they do not find that participants judged explanations of scientific phenomena to be higher quality when they contained irrelevant reductive language. The current commentary considers three possible reasons for this failure to replicate: (1) a change in the nature of online study participants, (2) a change in the background knowledge that people bring to judgments of scientific explanations, and (3) a change in the kinds of explanations that people find satisfying.

威尔逊等人（2025 年）报告了一次复制还原诱惑效应的失败尝试：与之前的研究不同，他们没有发现当科学现象的解释包含不相关的还原性语言时，参与者会判断这些解释的质量更高。本评论认为，这种复制失败可能有三个原因：(1) 在线研究参与者的性质发生了变化；(2) 人们对科学解释的判断所带来的背景知识发生了变化；(3) 人们认为令人满意的解释类型发生了变化。

引用次数: 0

Identification performance across the life span: Lineups and the reaction time-based Concealed Information Test 跨越生命周期的识别能力：排队和基于反应时间的隐藏信息测试。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105996

Melanie Sauerland , Sera Wiechert , Elias Czarnojan , Elisabeth Deiman , Linda Dörr , Nick J. Broers , Bruno Verschuere

Cognitive and social factors can deteriorate eyewitness identification performance in children and older adults. An identification procedure that mitigates the effect of such factors could be beneficial for child and older adult witnesses. In a field experiment, we mapped identification performance in a large community sample (N = 1239) across the lifespan (ages 6–79 years) for two different identification procedures: classic lineups and reaction time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT). Visitors of a science museum or science fair witnessed a recorded mock theft and then took either a classic lineup, or the RT-CIT. Young adults (18–35-year-olds) outperformed younger and older age groups in lineup performance. The RT-CIT showed a moderate capacity to diagnose face recognition and absence of recognition in the target-absent condition. Age did not affect identification with the RT-CIT. However, children were often not able to follow the RT-CIT instructions, leading to a large number of exclusions. A direct comparison of lineup vs. RT-CIT performance showed that children and adolescents showed better identification performance in RT-CIT than lineups. For young adults, there was no difference between the two procedures. The trend turned around at mid-adult age who showed better identification performance when they were given a lineup compared to an RT-CIT. These findings suggest that the RT-CIT might be considered an alternative identification procedure for children and adolescents, offering protection for innocent suspects.

认知和社会因素会降低儿童和老年人的目击证人指认能力。一个能减轻这些因素影响的辨认程序可能对儿童和老年人证人有益。在一项现场实验中，我们对一个大型社区样本（N = 1239）在整个生命周期（6-79 岁）内的两种不同辨认程序的辨认表现进行了测绘，这两种程序分别是经典的列队辨认和基于反应时间的隐蔽信息测试（RT-CIT）。科学博物馆或科学展览会的参观者目睹了一场模拟盗窃案的录制过程，然后进行了传统排队或 RT-CIT 测试。年轻人（18-35 岁）的列队表现优于年轻人和老年人。在目标缺失条件下，RT-CIT 显示出中等的人脸识别诊断能力和缺失识别能力。年龄并不影响 RT-CIT 的识别能力。然而，儿童往往无法遵循 RT-CIT 的指示，导致大量排除。直接比较列队与 RT-CIT 的成绩表明，儿童和青少年在 RT-CIT 中的识别成绩优于列队。对于青壮年来说，两种程序之间没有差异。这一趋势在中年人身上发生了逆转，他们在列队与 RT-CIT 相比时表现出更好的识别能力。这些研究结果表明，RT-CIT 可以作为儿童和青少年的另一种识别程序，为无辜的嫌疑人提供保护。

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引用次数: 0

Developmental changes in the perceived moral standing of robots 机器人道德地位感知的发展变化。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105983

Madeline G. Reinecke , Matti Wilks , Paul Bloom

Emerging evidence suggests that children may think of robots—and artificial intelligence, more generally—as having moral standing. In this paper, we trace the developmental trajectory of this belief. Over three developmental studies (combined N = 415) and one adult study (N = 156), we compared participants' judgments (Experiments 1–3) and donation choices (Experiment 4) towards a human boy, a humanoid robot, and control targets. We observed that, on the whole, children endorsed robots as having moral standing and mental life. With age, however, they tended to deny experiential mental life to robots, which aligned with diminished ascription of moral standing. Older children's judgments more closely mirrored those of adult participants, who overwhelmingly denied these attributes to robots. This sheds new light on children's moral cognitive development and their relationship to emerging technologies.

新的证据表明，儿童可能认为机器人--更广泛地说，人工智能--具有道德地位。在本文中，我们将追溯这种信念的发展轨迹。在三项发展研究（总人数=415）和一项成人研究（总人数=156）中，我们比较了参与者对人类男孩、仿人机器人和对照目标的判断（实验 1-3）和捐赠选择（实验 4）。我们发现，总体而言，儿童认可机器人具有道德地位和精神生活。然而，随着年龄的增长，他们倾向于否认机器人的精神生活体验，这与他们对道德地位认同的减少相一致。年长儿童的判断更接近成人参与者的判断，他们绝大多数否认机器人具有这些属性。这为儿童的道德认知发展及其与新兴技术的关系提供了新的启示。

引用次数: 0

Beyond risk preferences in sequential decision-making: How probability representation, sequential structure and choice perseverance bias optimal search 超越顺序决策中的风险偏好：概率表征、顺序结构和选择毅力如何影响最优搜索。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-11-08 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106001

Christiane Baumann , René Schlegelmilch , Bettina von Helversen

Sequential decision-making, where choices are made one after the other, is an important aspect of our daily lives. For example, when searching for a job, an apartment, or deciding when to buy or sell a stock, people often have to make decisions without knowing what future opportunities might arise. These situations, which are known as optimal stopping problems, involve a risk associated with the decision to either stop or continue searching. However, previous research has not consistently found a clear connection between individuals’ search behavior in these tasks and their risk preferences as measured in controlled experimental settings. In this paper, we explore how particular characteristics of optimal stopping tasks affect people’s choices, extending beyond their stable risk preferences. We find that (1) the way the underlying sampling distribution is presented (whether it is based on experience or description), (2) the sequential presentation of options, and (3) the unequal frequencies of choices to reject versus to accept significantly bias people choices. These results shed light on the complex nature of decisions that unfold sequentially and emphasize the importance of incorporating context factors when studying human decision behavior.

顺序决策，即一个接一个地做出选择，是我们日常生活的一个重要方面。例如，在找工作、找房子或决定何时买卖股票时，人们往往不得不在不知道未来可能出现什么机会的情况下做出决定。这些情况被称为 "最优停止问题"，与停止或继续寻找的决定相关联。然而，以往的研究并没有发现个人在这些任务中的搜索行为与他们在受控实验环境中的风险偏好之间有明显的联系。在本文中，我们探讨了最优停止任务的特定特征是如何影响人们的选择的，这些特征超越了人们稳定的风险偏好。我们发现：(1) 基本抽样分布的呈现方式（是基于经验还是基于描述）；(2) 选项的顺序呈现；(3) 拒绝与接受的选择频率不等，这些都会对人们的选择产生重大影响。这些结果揭示了依次展开的决策的复杂性，并强调了在研究人类决策行为时纳入情境因素的重要性。

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引用次数: 0

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