Journal of Terramechanics最新文献

Developing turning motion of push-rolling robot for zigzag climbing on loose soil 开发推滚机器人在松散土壤上之字形爬坡的转弯运动

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2026-01-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101116

Daisuke Fujiwara , Kojiro Iizuka

Wheeled robots can utilize the shear forces generated by locked wheels to improve climbing performance on loose soil. A representative example is the push-rolling robot. However, the previous studies have primarily addressed locomotion in the longitudinal direction. Flexible turning on loose soil with steep slopes can contribute to zigzag climbing, thereby reducing the effective slope angles. Nevertheless, turning mechanisms that employ telescopic motion in diagonal directions have not yet been developed, and the characteristics of turning and zigzag locomotion under such conditions remain unclear. The purpose of this study is to develop a turning mechanism with telescopic motion in diagonal directions and evaluate the traveling performance during zigzag climbing by push-rolling. To develop the turning motion, this study first investigates the effect of slip angles and slip ratios on the driving and resistive forces of a wheel. Then, the turning experiments using the testbed robot were conducted. The experiments indicated that an appropriate range of slip angles enables stable turning with low slippage. Finally, the proposed mechanism is demonstrated to achieve zigzag locomotion on the loose soil with steep slopes.

轮式机器人可以利用锁轮产生的剪切力来提高在松散土壤上的攀爬性能。推滚机器人就是一个典型的例子。然而，以往的研究主要针对纵向运动。在斜坡较陡的松散土壤上，柔性转弯会导致坡身之字形爬坡，从而降低有效坡角。然而，在对角线方向上采用伸缩运动的转向机构尚未开发，并且在这种条件下转向和之字形运动的特性仍然不清楚。摘要本研究的目的在于研制一种具有对角线伸缩运动的转弯机构，并对其推滚爬坡之字形行驶性能进行评价。为了发展车轮的转向运动，本研究首先研究了滑移角和滑移比对车轮驱动力和阻力的影响。然后，利用试验台机器人进行了车削实验。实验表明，适当的滑移角范围可以实现低滑移的稳定转向。最后，通过实验验证了该机构在陡坡松散土体上实现之字形运动的可行性。

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引用次数: 0

Innovating Mobility: A Student Competition in Wheel and Track Design 创新机动性：车轮与轨道设计学生竞赛

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-12-31 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101117

Devin Chen , Chaitanya Shekhar Sonalkar , Riku Kikuta , Andries Peenze , Varsha S. Swamy , J. Ethan Salmon , Bohumir Jelinek , George L. Mason , P. Schalk Els , Corina Sandu

In this paper, we propose an ISTVS Wheel/Track Design Student Competition to engage students in terramechanics through hands-on experience in off-road mobility design and testing. The competition will challenge student teams to design and fabricate a wheel or track system for a small unmanned ground vehicle (UGV), evaluated through tractive performance and mobility tests on selected soil types. By emphasizing low-cost, practical methods, the initiative ensures accessibility for students from diverse backgrounds. Teams can use free CAD software, 3D printing, or other rapid prototyping techniques to minimize expenses. The competition will feature two main components: a laboratory-style single-wheel test rig to assess tractive performance, and a small UGV platform for field-based mobility tests. Performance metrics may include drawbar pull, sinkage, slip, traction, and slope climbing, following ISTVS standards (He et al., 2020). Each competition will include design presentations and structured scoring criteria evaluating both design quality and performance. A standardized test matrix will assess structural integrity and functional performance. This initiative provides experiential learning opportunities, encourages innovation, and strengthens student engagement with ISTVS—cultivating the next generation of terramechanics engineers.

在本文中，我们提出了一个ISTVS车轮/赛道设计学生竞赛，让学生通过实践越野机动设计和测试的经验来参与地形力学。该竞赛将要求学生团队设计和制造小型无人地面车辆（UGV）的车轮或轨道系统，并通过在选定土壤类型上的牵引性能和机动性测试进行评估。通过强调低成本、实用的方法，该计划确保了来自不同背景的学生的可及性。团队可以使用免费的CAD软件、3D打印或其他快速原型技术来最大限度地减少费用。比赛将包括两个主要组成部分：一个实验室式的单轮试验台，用于评估牵引性能，以及一个小型UGV平台，用于现场机动测试。性能指标可能包括拉力、下沉、滑移、牵引力和爬坡，遵循ISTVS标准（He et al., 2020）。每场比赛将包括设计演示和评估设计质量和性能的结构化评分标准。标准化测试矩阵将评估结构完整性和功能性能。这一举措提供了体验式学习的机会，鼓励创新，并加强了学生与istvs的互动——培养下一代地形力学工程师。

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引用次数: 0

Terramechanics rig capabilities and illustrative applications of its use for the study of tires/wheels performance on ice and deformable soil 地形力学钻机能力及其在冰面和可变形土壤上轮胎/车轮性能研究中的应用实例

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-12-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101106

Varsha S. Swamy, Nikhil Ravichandran, Dhruvin Jasoliya, Alexandru Vilsan, Corina Sandu

Experimental testing is a crucial aspect of terramechanics. Due to the complexity of tire-terrain interactions, test data plays an imperative role in vehicle/tire performance benchmarking and gaining insights into the underlying physics. This paper provides a detailed discussion of the off-road tire testing rig at the Terramechanics, Multibody, and Vehicle Systems Laboratory at Virginia Tech. It is a full-scale, indoor, controlled quarter-car setup capable of testing tire traction, braking, and simulated cornering performance across various terrains, including rigid surfaces, multiple soil types, and ice. We first outline the concept and design considerations of the rig, focusing on components that ensure repeatability. This includes controllers for normal load and slip ratio, as well as the integration of clutch and brake systems. The rig can be used in conjunction with data acquisition and measurement systems capable of recording forces, moments, instantaneous sinkage, rut profiles, soil stresses, cone index, tire contact temperatures, and more. To demonstrate some of the capabilities of the rig, we present three illustrative test studies conducted on ice, sandy loam, and Lunar soil simulant. The terramechanics rig is shown to offer excellent testing control capabilities, versatile testing environments while ensuring reliable and repeatable results.

实验测试是地质力学的一个重要方面。由于轮胎与地形相互作用的复杂性，测试数据在车辆/轮胎性能基准测试和深入了解潜在物理特性方面发挥着至关重要的作用。本文详细介绍了弗吉尼亚理工大学Terramechanics， Multibody， and Vehicle Systems Laboratory的越野轮胎试验台。这是一个全尺寸、室内、可控的四分之一车装置，能够在各种地形（包括刚性表面、多种土壤类型和冰面）上测试轮胎牵引力、制动和模拟转弯性能。我们首先概述了钻机的概念和设计考虑因素，重点介绍了确保可重复性的组件。这包括用于正常负载和滑移比的控制器，以及离合器和制动系统的集成。该钻机可以与数据采集和测量系统配合使用，这些系统能够记录力、力矩、瞬时下沉、车辙曲线、土壤应力、锥体指数、轮胎接触温度等。为了展示钻机的一些功能，我们提出了三个说明性测试研究，分别在冰、沙质壤土和模拟月球土壤上进行。地质力学钻机提供了出色的测试控制能力、通用的测试环境，同时确保了可靠和可重复的结果。

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引用次数: 0

Research status and development trends of walking wheels 行走轮的研究现状及发展趋势

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-12-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101103

Dianlei Han , Lizhi Ren , Changwei Li , Hairui Liu , Jinrui Hu , Yongyun Zhu

As a new type of walking device for complex terrain that breaks through the limitations of common travel device, the walking wheel has significant application potential in the fields of resource development and agricultural production. It noted the development of the walking wheel from the original exploration to the institutional simulation to the motion simulation. In addition, it outlines relevant theoretical contents related to walking wheels, including traction efficiency, traction force, passability, the mechanical model of wheel-terrain interaction, and analysis of movement mechanisms. The analysis found that the current walking wheel also has problems such as sliding, high impact vibration, inadequate traction performance, poor smoothness and weak carrying capacity, leading to fewer applications in actual production. Based on this, the paper proposes a bionic engineering optimization path: by drawing on the excellent environmental adaptation mechanisms of organisms, and clarifies that future research should focus on three key directions: rigid-flexible coupled assembly, bionic structural design, and bionic material selection. This research provides a clear technical direction and theoretical support for the subsequent research and development of complex terrain walking devices. It provides a theoretical reference for the interaction between walking wheels and complex terrains in the field of terramechanics.

行走轮作为一种突破普通行走装置局限性的新型复杂地形行走装置，在资源开发和农业生产领域具有重要的应用潜力。记录了步行轮从最初的探索到机构仿真再到运动仿真的发展历程。此外，概述了步行轮的相关理论内容，包括牵引效率、牵引力、通过性、车轮-地形相互作用力学模型、运动机理分析等。分析发现，目前的行走轮还存在滑动、冲击振动大、牵引性能不足、平顺性差、承载能力弱等问题，导致在实际生产中的应用较少。在此基础上，提出了借鉴生物优良的环境适应机制的仿生工程优化路径，并明确了未来研究应重点关注刚柔耦合装配、仿生结构设计和仿生材料选择三个关键方向。本研究为后续复杂地形行走装置的研发提供了明确的技术方向和理论支持。为地形力学领域研究行走轮与复杂地形的相互作用提供了理论参考。

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引用次数: 0

Ride comfort optimization with handling constraints over rough terrain 乘坐舒适性优化与处理限制在崎岖的地形

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-12-02 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101105

Arslan Mahmood, Cor-Jacques Kat, P. Schalk Els

Semi-active suspension systems have garnered interest in addressing the trade-off between ride comfort and handling of off-road vehicles over rough terrain. This trade-off is challenging due to the on-road handling demand, with high ground clearance and center of mass complicating the matter further. Control strategies such as skyhook and ground-hook control might not be as effective due to the slow response time of the semi-active suspension system being investigated. This necessitates a different approach to leverage the semi-active suspension to improve vehicle ride comfort while maintaining acceptable handling. This study aims to find parameter settings of a semi-active suspension system for optimal ride comfort with a specified handling performance for a range of speeds and terrains, including rough terrains. Results show that optimal settings are relatively insensitive to road roughness but indeed sensitive to speed. Balancing of front and rear axle load transfer hold potential for improving handling without compromising comfort.

半主动悬架系统在解决乘坐舒适性和越野车辆在崎岖地形上的处理之间的权衡方面引起了人们的兴趣。这种权衡是具有挑战性的，因为在道路上的处理需求，高离地间隙和质心使问题进一步复杂化。由于所研究的半主动悬架系统的响应时间较慢，诸如天钩和地钩控制之类的控制策略可能不那么有效。这就需要一种不同的方法来利用半主动悬架来提高车辆的乘坐舒适性，同时保持可接受的操控性。本研究旨在找到半主动悬架系统的参数设置，以获得最佳的乘坐舒适性，并在一定范围的速度和地形（包括粗糙地形）下具有指定的处理性能。结果表明，最优设置对路面粗糙度相对不敏感，但对速度确实敏感。平衡前轴和后轴负载转移持有潜力，以提高处理而不影响舒适性。

引用次数: 0

Evaluating and advancing scaling methods for reliable wheel mobility prediction in low-gravity environments 评估和推进低重力环境下可靠车轮移动预测的尺度方法

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-11-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101104

Takuya Omura, Genya Ishigami

Predicting wheel mobility in low-gravity environments through Earth-based gravity tests offers a practical alternative to expensive parabolic flights and computationally intensive numerical simulations. However, an optimal scaling method for varying wheel speeds remains unidentified. This study systematically evaluated three scaling methods — Granular Scaling Laws (GSL), reduced-weight tests, and equal-mass tests — using Discrete Element Method simulations at three wheel angular velocities (

π / 10

,

π

, and

2 π

rad/s). The methods were assessed based on their accuracy in predicting horizontal velocity, slip ratio, sinkage, and power consumption under free-driving conditions. GSL maintained errors below 5% across all conditions, while the equal-mass test showed velocity-dependent degradation with errors reaching 234% at high speeds. The reduced-weight test underestimated sinkage by over 100%, risking vehicle immobilization. An analytical framework employing an inertial number was developed to quantify soil flow characteristics, facilitating a comprehensive comparative analysis of the scaling methods. This analysis revealed that the equal-mass test inadequately captured dynamic flow phenomena, accounting for its velocity-dependent degradation. Conversely, GSL accurately reproduced soil flow characteristics under all conditions, enabling precise mobility predictions over a broad velocity range. These findings establish GSL as the most accurate and practical scaling approach for extraterrestrial rover mobility design and analysis.

通过地面重力测试预测低重力环境下的车轮机动性，为昂贵的抛物线飞行和计算密集型数值模拟提供了一种实用的替代方案。然而，对于不同车轮速度的最佳缩放方法仍未确定。本研究系统地评估了三种标度方法——颗粒标度定律（GSL）、减重测试和等质量测试——使用离散元法模拟三个车轮角速度（π/10、π和2π rad/s）。对这些方法进行评估的依据是它们在自由驾驶条件下预测水平速度、滑移比、下沉和功耗的准确性。GSL在所有条件下都将误差保持在5%以下，而等质量测试显示速度相关的衰减，在高速下误差达到234%。减轻重量的试验低估了下沉超过100%，有可能使车辆无法移动。提出了一种采用惯性数量化土流特性的分析框架，便于对标度方法进行综合比较分析。这一分析表明，等质量试验没有充分捕捉到动态流动现象，说明其速度依赖的退化。相反，GSL可以准确地再现所有条件下的土壤流动特性，从而在很宽的速度范围内实现精确的流动性预测。这些发现使GSL成为地外漫游车机动性设计和分析中最准确和实用的缩放方法。

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引用次数: 0

Tyre tread estimation from 3D contact patch measurements on the inside of a deformed tyre 轮胎胎面估计从三维接触补丁测量在一个变形轮胎的内部

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-11-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101102

Thomas B. Kabutz, P. Schalk Els

This study investigates the feasibility of using measurements of the geometry on the inner surface of a tyre to predict the geometry of the tread on the outside. The proposed method offsets the deformed inner surface along its normal directions by the tread thickness.

Initially, a simple 2D cross-section model proved the feasibility of this method. This led to the development of a full 3D tyre model that can estimate the tread of a deformed tyre. Photogrammetry was used to capture a complete 3D geometry model of an unloaded and uninflated tyre, from which the inner and outer surfaces are used to calculate a displacement map for the model. Results indicate that the model can estimate the tread of both a SUV tyre and a large lug agricultural tyre to within about 2.5 mm of measurements of the deformed tread. This tyre is approximately 750 mm in diameter. The remaining error is likely due to the accuracy of the inner and outer surface measurements. The findings pave the way to predict soil volume displacement and contact area, providing crucial insights for vehicle control and mitigating environmental impacts in offroad scenarios. The system is expected to provide extremely useful data for future tyre-terrain interaction research.

本研究探讨了利用测量轮胎内表面的几何形状来预测轮胎外表面胎面几何形状的可行性。该方法利用胎面厚度法向补偿变形的内表面。最初，一个简单的二维截面模型证明了该方法的可行性。这导致了一个完整的3D轮胎模型的发展，可以估计变形轮胎的胎面。摄影测量法用于捕捉一个完整的3D几何模型的一个卸载和未充气的轮胎，从内部和外部表面被用来计算一个位移图的模型。结果表明，该模型可以对SUV轮胎和大型农用轮胎的胎面进行估计，其胎面变形误差在2.5 mm左右。这个轮胎直径约750 毫米。剩余的误差可能是由于内外表面测量的准确性。这些发现为预测土壤体积位移和接触面积铺平了道路，为车辆控制和减轻越野场景下的环境影响提供了重要见解。该系统有望为未来的轮胎-地形相互作用研究提供极其有用的数据。

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引用次数: 0

Numerical investigation of snow–rubber interaction and snow milling using a smoothed particle hydrodynamics approach 基于光滑颗粒流体力学方法的雪-橡胶相互作用和雪磨数值研究

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-11-08 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101101

Yogesh Surkutwar , Corina Sandu , Costin Untaroiu

Accurate modeling of snow-rubber interactions is essential for evaluating winter tire performance in numerical studies. The reliability of these simulations depends on precise material modeling of both snow and rubber, as well as the accuracy of the modelling methods. While rubber material models are well-studied, research on compacted snow, particularly at a density of 500 kg/m³, is limited. In this study, a Crushable Foam(CF) material model is evaluated against the Drucker–Prager Cap (DPC) model, previously applied to compacted snow. While the CF model provides a new perspective, the DPC model achieves stronger agreement with experiments and is therefore adopted for subsequent simulations. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) and a hybrid SPH–FEM approaches are assessed to overcome the limitations of conventional Finite Element Methods (FEM) in handling large deformations. The hybrid SPH–FEM method demonstrates a favorable balance between accuracy and efficiency, reducing computational cost by nearly 50 % while maintaining strong correlation with experiments. In addition, snow milling simulations are conducted to examine the effect of lamella geometry on frictional forces, with results showing close agreement with experimental data. These advancements improve predictive capability, enhance efficiency, and provide a foundation for future large-scale snow–tire simulation studies.

在数值研究中，雪-橡胶相互作用的精确建模对于评估冬季轮胎的性能至关重要。这些模拟的可靠性取决于雪和橡胶的精确材料建模，以及建模方法的准确性。虽然橡胶材料模型已经得到了很好的研究，但对压实雪的研究，特别是密度为500 kg/m3的雪的研究是有限的。在本研究中，可破碎泡沫（CF）材料模型与先前应用于压实雪的Drucker-Prager Cap （DPC）模型进行了评估。CF模型提供了一个新的视角，而DPC模型与实验的一致性更强，因此在后续的模拟中被采用。对光滑颗粒流体力学（SPH）和SPH - FEM混合方法进行了评估，以克服传统有限元方法（FEM）在处理大变形时的局限性。SPH-FEM混合方法在精度和效率之间取得了良好的平衡，计算成本降低了近50%，同时保持了与实验的强相关性。此外，还进行了磨雪模拟，以检验片层几何形状对摩擦力的影响，结果与实验数据非常吻合。这些进展提高了预测能力，提高了效率，为今后大规模雪地轮胎模拟研究奠定了基础。

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引用次数: 0

Development of Testing Apparatus and Postprocessing Methodology for Characterization of Contact Patch Dimensions and Vertical Stress in Deformable Soils 变形土中接触片尺寸和垂直应力特性测试装置和后处理方法的发展

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-11-05 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101100

Chaitanya Shekhar Sonalkar, Alexandru Vilsan, Mohit Nitin Shenvi, Nikhil Ravichandran, Corina Sandu

Vertical stress distribution is of prime importance when it comes to determining the soil compaction and the dynamics of tire-soil interaction. It affects the performance of tires, enhancing or limiting mobility of vehicles passing on it. This work aims to develop novel pressure sensing setup using FlexiForce A401 piezoresistive pressure sensors. The pressure sensing apparatus is placed under the soil at a certain depth, and a tire passes over it. Tests are conducted at different slip ratios to measure the vertical stresses induced in the soil due to the tire-soil interaction. Using stress sensors and stereo cameras, we estimate the size and shape of the contact patch. The results from the experimental data are then compared with the analytical model developed using the Boussinesq’s equation. The novelty of this work consists of the development of an experimental setup and an experimentation methodology to characterize the contact patch size and the pressure distribution in the contact patch. The study shows good agreement between the analytical model and the experimental data, thus validating the proposed methodology and the accuracy of the analytical model.

垂直应力分布是确定土壤压实和轮胎-土壤相互作用动力学的最重要因素。它影响轮胎的性能，增强或限制车辆通过它的机动性。本工作旨在利用FlexiForce A401压阻式压力传感器开发新型压力传感装置。将压力传感装置放置在一定深度的土壤下，轮胎在其上通过。在不同的滑移比下进行了试验，以测量由于轮胎-土壤相互作用在土壤中引起的垂直应力。利用应力传感器和立体摄像机，我们估计了接触贴片的大小和形状。然后将实验数据的结果与利用Boussinesq方程建立的分析模型进行了比较。这项工作的新颖之处在于开发了一种实验装置和实验方法来表征接触贴片的尺寸和接触贴片中的压力分布。研究表明，分析模型与实验数据吻合良好，从而验证了所提出的方法和分析模型的准确性。

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引用次数: 0

Multi-layer skid controller design of distributed electric drive mobile platform based on the optimal slip rate to improve its driving stability 基于最优滑移率的分布式电驱动移动平台多层滑移控制器设计，提高其行驶稳定性

IF 3.7 3区工程技术 Q3 ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL

Journal of Terramechanics

Pub Date : 2025-11-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2025.101099

Feng Chen , Junjie Ding , Long Chen , Enlai Zheng , Zhitao Luo , Yingtao Lu , Yinyan Shi , Xiaochan Wang , Lianglong Hu , Shanhu Zhao

To improve the driving stability and safety of electric drive mobile platforms (EDMP) for protected horticulture, it is essential to minimize the excessive slip of driving wheels. Therefore, a tire-soil model is established and a dynamic model of EDMP with implement considering the influence of wheel slip on longitudinal motion is developed. Subsequently, a linear parameter-varying model incorporating longitudinal speed and wheel force is established. A state estimator utilizing an improved adaptive strong tracking unscented Kalman filter (ASTUKF) algorithm is proposed to obtain real-time friction coefficients of four wheels and determine the optimal slip rate. Based on this, a robust model predictive controller (RMPC) with the employment of linear matrix inequality is designed to suppress EDMP slip. Finally, to validate the effectiveness of the proposed controller, a real test system for the EDMP is developed. It’s demonstrated that the slip rate of the EDMP can be significantly reduced through the implementation of the proposed skid control strategy. The average estimation errors of the ASTUKF are reduced by 95.5% and 81.6% compared to the KF and UKF, respectively. Under both straight and continuous steering conditions, the wheel slip rate errors are reduced by 48.33% and 55.63%, respectively.

为了提高电动园艺移动平台的行驶稳定性和安全性，必须尽量减少驱动轮的过度滑移。为此，建立了车胎-土模型，建立了考虑轮滑对车体纵向运动影响的带履带式EDMP动力学模型。随后，建立了考虑纵向速度和车轮力的线性参数变化模型。提出了一种利用改进的自适应强跟踪无嗅卡尔曼滤波（ASTUKF）算法的状态估计器，实时获取四轮摩擦系数并确定最优滑移率。在此基础上，设计了一种利用线性矩阵不等式的鲁棒模型预测控制器（RMPC）来抑制EDMP滑移。最后，为了验证所提控制器的有效性，开发了一个真实的EDMP测试系统。结果表明，通过实施所提出的打滑控制策略，可以显著降低EDMP的打滑率。与KF和UKF相比，ASTUKF的平均估计误差分别降低了95.5%和81.6%。在直线转向和连续转向工况下，轮滑率误差分别降低了48.33%和55.63%。

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引用次数: 0