Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-05DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105577
Yi Xiao , Weiqing Zhu , Tangjie Wang , Timon Rabczuk
This study develops a novel coupled macro‑meso analytical framework that couples structural response with localized mesoscopic damage evolution, providing a unified approach to investigate the multiscale damage evolution mechanism within concrete components during contact explosion. Within this framework, the propagation of blast stress waves and the resulting internal stress distributions are analyzed at the macro scale; the transitions of local stress states and corresponding meso‑scale damage mechanisms are examined at the meso‑scale. The effects of aggregate density, shape, and distribution on the local damage characteristics of concrete are further examined. Results show that the stress gradient of concrete near the blast center and free surface is steep along the incident direction and shallow laterally, gradually decreasing towards the interior of the component. Depending on the stress state, five typical local failure modes of concrete are identified: progressive crushing, overall collapse, crack-induced damage, internal spalling, and surface spalling. Aggregate characteristics affect concrete damage differently under various damage modes, showing a significant influence in the crack-induced and spalling zones but only a limited effect in the progressive-crushing zone. This work provides a comprehensive multiscale understanding of internal damage mechanisms of concrete components under contact explosion, thereby contributing to the rational design of blast-resistant structures.
{"title":"Damage evolution mechanism in concrete components under contact explosion: A coupled macro-meso perspective","authors":"Yi Xiao , Weiqing Zhu , Tangjie Wang , Timon Rabczuk","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105577","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105577","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study develops a novel coupled macro‑meso analytical framework that couples structural response with localized mesoscopic damage evolution, providing a unified approach to investigate the multiscale damage evolution mechanism within concrete components during contact explosion. Within this framework, the propagation of blast stress waves and the resulting internal stress distributions are analyzed at the macro scale; the transitions of local stress states and corresponding meso‑scale damage mechanisms are examined at the meso‑scale. The effects of aggregate density, shape, and distribution on the local damage characteristics of concrete are further examined. Results show that the stress gradient of concrete near the blast center and free surface is steep along the incident direction and shallow laterally, gradually decreasing towards the interior of the component. Depending on the stress state, five typical local failure modes of concrete are identified: progressive crushing, overall collapse, crack-induced damage, internal spalling, and surface spalling. Aggregate characteristics affect concrete damage differently under various damage modes, showing a significant influence in the crack-induced and spalling zones but only a limited effect in the progressive-crushing zone. This work provides a comprehensive multiscale understanding of internal damage mechanisms of concrete components under contact explosion, thereby contributing to the rational design of blast-resistant structures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105577"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145528634","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-13DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105592
Pei Zhao , Zhiming Jiao , Tuanwei Zhang , Jianjun Wang , Shengguo Ma , Hui Chang , Xinke Xiao , Xianghui Dai , Weidong Song , Zhihua Wang
A novel dual-phase body-centered cubic TiZrHfTa0.5W0.5 high-entropy alloy energetic structural material has been developed that exhibits a pronounced coupling of penetration and explosion under ballistic impact. This is attributed to the alloy mechanical properties, high density and superior energetic characteristics. Extensive strain hardening and appreciable plasticity are features of the phase transformation from a body-centered cubic matrix to a hexagonal cubic phase structure at high strain rates. Equiaxed sub-grains are formed via dislocation slip and grain subdivision under quasi-static loadings, while a martensitic transformation is mediated by the significant increase in martensite nucleation sites under dynamic loadings. The observed enhanced terminal effects originate from the kinetic and chemical energy of the residual energetic projectile, resulting in a rear target plate petaling tearing failure. The penetration and explosion behavior associated with the energetic projectile when impacting double-spaced plates is quantitatively evaluated using the relationship between the perforation and damaged region diameters and impact velocity.
{"title":"Coupling effect of penetration and explosion in a novel high-entropy alloy energetic structural material under ballistic impact","authors":"Pei Zhao , Zhiming Jiao , Tuanwei Zhang , Jianjun Wang , Shengguo Ma , Hui Chang , Xinke Xiao , Xianghui Dai , Weidong Song , Zhihua Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105592","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105592","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A novel dual-phase body-centered cubic TiZrHfTa<sub>0.5</sub>W<sub>0.5</sub> high-entropy alloy energetic structural material has been developed that exhibits a pronounced coupling of penetration and explosion under ballistic impact. This is attributed to the alloy mechanical properties, high density and superior energetic characteristics. Extensive strain hardening and appreciable plasticity are features of the phase transformation from a body-centered cubic matrix to a hexagonal cubic phase structure at high strain rates. Equiaxed sub-grains are formed <em>via</em> dislocation slip and grain subdivision under quasi-static loadings, while a martensitic transformation is mediated by the significant increase in martensite nucleation sites under dynamic loadings. The observed enhanced terminal effects originate from the kinetic and chemical energy of the residual energetic projectile, resulting in a rear target plate petaling tearing failure. The penetration and explosion behavior associated with the energetic projectile when impacting double-spaced plates is quantitatively evaluated using the relationship between the perforation and damaged region diameters and impact velocity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105592"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145579356","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-09-10DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105534
Ji-rui Wang, Kui Tang, Jin-xiang Wang, Min-hui Gu, Yuan-bo Li
Long-rod projectile is the predominant type of modern kinetic energy (KE) penetrator, and depleted uranium alloy (DU) serves as one of its primary materials. Although DU penetrators exhibit excellent penetration performance, their radioactive nature limits the availability of experimental results. Moreover, it is challenging for theoretical or semi-empirical models to accurately estimate the penetration efficiency (P/L) of DU penetrator under the influence of multiple factors. In this study, a novel data-driven machine learning framework based on artificial neural network (ANN) was developed to predict the penetration efficiency of DU long-rod projectiles with length-to-diameter (L/D) ratios ranging from 10 to 35 and initial velocities between 1200 and 2200 m/s when impacting semi-infinite armour steel targets with hardness levels between 270 and 579 BHN. A dataset comprising 180 examples derived from validated numerical simulations with LS-DYNA was utilized to train and test the neural network, achieving high accuracy while effectively avoiding overfitting. The neural network model revealed that the relationship between the equivalent strength and the target hardness is monotonically increasing and concave, exhibiting a nearly linear trend within the hardness range of 250 to 600 BHN. Additionally, the L/D effect has a negative correlation with initial velocity but a positive correlation with target hardness. Furthermore, when the initial velocity is low and the L/D ratio is high, subsidiary radial penetration occurs, leading to a significant reduction in penetration efficiency.
{"title":"Machine learning and numerical simulation based prediction of the penetration efficiency of depleted uranium long-rod projectiles: a multi-factor analysis","authors":"Ji-rui Wang, Kui Tang, Jin-xiang Wang, Min-hui Gu, Yuan-bo Li","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105534","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105534","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Long-rod projectile is the predominant type of modern kinetic energy (KE) penetrator, and depleted uranium alloy (DU) serves as one of its primary materials. Although DU penetrators exhibit excellent penetration performance, their radioactive nature limits the availability of experimental results. Moreover, it is challenging for theoretical or semi-empirical models to accurately estimate the penetration efficiency (<em>P</em>/<em>L</em>) of DU penetrator under the influence of multiple factors. In this study, a novel data-driven machine learning framework based on artificial neural network (ANN) was developed to predict the penetration efficiency of DU long-rod projectiles with length-to-diameter (<em>L</em>/<em>D</em>) ratios ranging from 10 to 35 and initial velocities between 1200 and 2200 m/s when impacting semi-infinite armour steel targets with hardness levels between 270 and 579 BHN. A dataset comprising 180 examples derived from validated numerical simulations with LS-DYNA was utilized to train and test the neural network, achieving high accuracy while effectively avoiding overfitting. The neural network model revealed that the relationship between the equivalent strength and the target hardness is monotonically increasing and concave, exhibiting a nearly linear trend within the hardness range of 250 to 600 BHN. Additionally, the <em>L</em>/<em>D</em> effect has a negative correlation with initial velocity but a positive correlation with target hardness. Furthermore, when the initial velocity is low and the <em>L</em>/<em>D</em> ratio is high, subsidiary radial penetration occurs, leading to a significant reduction in penetration efficiency.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105534"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145579276","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-10-22DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105558
Jacob A. Rogers , Kailu Xiao , Paul T. Mead , Charles U. Pittman , Edwin L. Thomas , Justin W. Wilkerson , Thomas E. Lacy
{"title":"Corrigendum to “Size matters: Impact energy absorption across five decades of length scale” [International Journal of Impact Engineering, Vol. 207 (2026) 105478/ ISSN 0734-743X]","authors":"Jacob A. Rogers , Kailu Xiao , Paul T. Mead , Charles U. Pittman , Edwin L. Thomas , Justin W. Wilkerson , Thomas E. Lacy","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105558","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105558","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105558"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145624207","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-03DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105567
Shushu Zhao, Jianguo Ning, Xiangzhao Xu
In this study, projectile penetration into a concrete/rock double-layer target is studied experimentally. The influence of interfacial reflected and transmitted waves on the perforation performance of double-layer targets is studied using the one-dimensional stress wave propagation theory. The perforation mechanism of double-layer targets is obtained by combining the principles of energy conservation and minimum potential energy. Based on these, a theoretical model is established to analyze the penetration behavior of the double-layered target subjected to rigid projectile loading. The established model is verified using the experimental data obtained from this study and other published literature. The results show that the prediction results of the present model are consistent with the experimental data at different initial penetration velocities. A comparative analysis of the present model with several previous penetration prediction models reveals its substantial advantages in terms of accuracy and applicability. The model can effectively predict the penetration performance of concrete/rock double-layer targets under different penetration velocities.
{"title":"Analysis model of double-layer targets of projectile penetration into concrete/rock considering interface effects","authors":"Shushu Zhao, Jianguo Ning, Xiangzhao Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105567","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105567","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this study, projectile penetration into a concrete/rock double-layer target is studied experimentally. The influence of interfacial reflected and transmitted waves on the perforation performance of double-layer targets is studied using the one-dimensional stress wave propagation theory. The perforation mechanism of double-layer targets is obtained by combining the principles of energy conservation and minimum potential energy. Based on these, a theoretical model is established to analyze the penetration behavior of the double-layered target subjected to rigid projectile loading. The established model is verified using the experimental data obtained from this study and other published literature. The results show that the prediction results of the present model are consistent with the experimental data at different initial penetration velocities. A comparative analysis of the present model with several previous penetration prediction models reveals its substantial advantages in terms of accuracy and applicability. The model can effectively predict the penetration performance of concrete/rock double-layer targets under different penetration velocities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105567"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145468510","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-08DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105584
Guocong Liang , Huawei Li , Wensu Chen , Hong Hao
Reinforced concrete (RC) beams are susceptible to negative bending moment (NBM) damage near supports under impact loads from various sources such as falling debris. This damage mode, caused by upward inertia forces, can severely compromise structural integrity, yet its quantitative prediction remains challenging due to the complex dynamic interactions. To date, the impact force profile characteristics (e.g., peak force and duration) and structural parameters (e.g., beam span and reinforcement ratio) that influence the dynamic response of RC beams have been extensively investigated. However, the relationship between the frequency contents of impact forces that excite higher-order response modes and the severity of NBM damage has received limited attention. In this study, the initiation and development mechanisms of NBM damage of RC beams are investigated. Using validated numerical models and Fast Fourier Transform analysis, it is found that the high-frequency components of the primary impact pulse that sufficiently excite the high vibration modes govern NBM damage severity. The larger spectral amplitude of impact force at corresponding frequencies of high vibration modes of beams induces more severe NBM damage. Larger impact force with shorter impulse duration results in a wider impact force frequency band, which in turn enhances the excitation of high-order modes and intensifies the NBM damage severity. A damage assessment method is developed based on spectral amplitudes of impact force at beam modal frequencies to quantitatively assess the severity of NBM damage in RC beams. The proposed framework provides a practical and effective tool for impact damage assessment of RC beams.
{"title":"Impact force frequency characteristics and their influence on damage modes of reinforced concrete beams","authors":"Guocong Liang , Huawei Li , Wensu Chen , Hong Hao","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105584","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105584","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Reinforced concrete (RC) beams are susceptible to negative bending moment (NBM) damage near supports under impact loads from various sources such as falling debris. This damage mode, caused by upward inertia forces, can severely compromise structural integrity, yet its quantitative prediction remains challenging due to the complex dynamic interactions. To date, the impact force profile characteristics (e.g., peak force and duration) and structural parameters (e.g., beam span and reinforcement ratio) that influence the dynamic response of RC beams have been extensively investigated. However, the relationship between the frequency contents of impact forces that excite higher-order response modes and the severity of NBM damage has received limited attention. In this study, the initiation and development mechanisms of NBM damage of RC beams are investigated. Using validated numerical models and Fast Fourier Transform analysis, it is found that the high-frequency components of the primary impact pulse that sufficiently excite the high vibration modes govern NBM damage severity. The larger spectral amplitude of impact force at corresponding frequencies of high vibration modes of beams induces more severe NBM damage. Larger impact force with shorter impulse duration results in a wider impact force frequency band, which in turn enhances the excitation of high-order modes and intensifies the NBM damage severity. A damage assessment method is developed based on spectral amplitudes of impact force at beam modal frequencies to quantitatively assess the severity of NBM damage in RC beams. The proposed framework provides a practical and effective tool for impact damage assessment of RC beams.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105584"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145528629","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-03DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105568
Jianguo Li , Xiukai Kan , Longkang Li , Haosen Chen , Tao Suo
Previous research has shown that introducing appropriate strong texture components into low-ductility pure tungsten (W) can more readily induce adiabatic shear localization. However, identifying the key factors that drive plastic instability in strongly textured pure W remains a significant challenge, particularly in accurately accounting for the thermal softening effect on the evolution of dynamic instability. In this work, we first investigated the mechanical response, temperature and strain fields evolution of coarse-grained W and as-rolled W under dynamic compression using a “force-heat-deformation” dynamic in-situ synchronous testing system based on split Hopkinson pressure bar. The Taylor-Quinney coefficient of pure W was determined to be about 0.55 at large strains, and the detected temperature rise within the localized shear zone was very limited even after instability occurred. Hence, thermal softening was not the sole factor triggering the adiabatic shear bands (ASBs). Subsequently, meticulous microscopic observations revealed the appearance of interlaminar microcracks along the shear directions prior to dynamic instability. To consider the microscale damage effect on the dynamic instability evolution, we incorporated a damage evolution equation into the crystal plasticity finite element model (CPFEM) to more accurately describe the dynamic instability responses of this strongly textured pure W. By comparing the experimental and CPFEM simulation results, their high consistency indicated that incorporating the damage evolution model significantly promoted shear concentration and the subsequent instability. The coupled effects of thermal softening and micro-damage evolution are the critical factors triggering plastic instability in strongly textured pure W. This work provides a profound understanding of the micro-damage softening effect on the evolution of dynamic instability behavior in metallic materials.
{"title":"Coupled effects of thermal and micro-damage softening on the initiation of adiabatic shear instability in strongly textured pure tungsten","authors":"Jianguo Li , Xiukai Kan , Longkang Li , Haosen Chen , Tao Suo","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105568","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105568","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Previous research has shown that introducing appropriate strong texture components into low-ductility pure tungsten (W) can more readily induce adiabatic shear localization. However, identifying the key factors that drive plastic instability in strongly textured pure W remains a significant challenge, particularly in accurately accounting for the thermal softening effect on the evolution of dynamic instability. In this work, we first investigated the mechanical response, temperature and strain fields evolution of coarse-grained W and as-rolled W under dynamic compression using a “force-heat-deformation” dynamic in-situ synchronous testing system based on split Hopkinson pressure bar. The Taylor-Quinney coefficient of pure W was determined to be about 0.55 at large strains, and the detected temperature rise within the localized shear zone was very limited even after instability occurred. Hence, thermal softening was not the sole factor triggering the adiabatic shear bands (ASBs). Subsequently, meticulous microscopic observations revealed the appearance of interlaminar microcracks along the shear directions prior to dynamic instability. To consider the microscale damage effect on the dynamic instability evolution, we incorporated a damage evolution equation into the crystal plasticity finite element model (CPFEM) to more accurately describe the dynamic instability responses of this strongly textured pure W. By comparing the experimental and CPFEM simulation results, their high consistency indicated that incorporating the damage evolution model significantly promoted shear concentration and the subsequent instability. The coupled effects of thermal softening and micro-damage evolution are the critical factors triggering plastic instability in strongly textured pure W. This work provides a profound understanding of the micro-damage softening effect on the evolution of dynamic instability behavior in metallic materials.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105568"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145468511","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-08-23DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105511
Joseph Dinotte , Louis Giacomo , Mehdi Omidvar , Stephan Bless , Magued Iskander
This paper investigates the conditions that lead to unstable projectile penetration in granular media, and examines the implications of projectile instability for the depth of burial in soil targets. A vertical ballistic range is used to launch projectiles into soil targets. A total of 39 experiments are reported at impact velocities in the range of 150-200 m/s. Two projectiles are investigated, including a conical nose cylinder and a scaled replica of the M107 artillery round, with length-to-diameter ratios (L/D), of 6.14 and 4.54, respectively. Photon Doppler velocimetry (PDV) and post-mortem measurements are used to resolve the projectile trajectory and depth of burial (DoB). Projectile drift and tilt from vertical penetration are measured at the DoB. It is found that the longer cone cylinder projectiles are stable in all soils tested. These projectiles develop an angle of attack at lower penetration velocities, with the off-axis drift increasing in looser soil targets. In contrast, the shorter M107 projectile are unstable in all soils tested, with the exception of the densest soil target, where the projectile maintains a stable trajectory, albeit with a significant tilt and off-axis drift. Impact velocity does not have a measurable effect on projectile stability at the velocities tested, and the presence of pore water has a secondary effect, generally reducing the magnitude of drift and tilt. The M107 projectile becomes unstable and tumbles in the majority of the experiments, thereby severely reducing the projectile DoB compared to a stable projectile. Trajectories and post-mortem measurements are used to introduce projectile instability into the GeoPoncelet phenomenological penetration model. An empirical stability correction factor, , is proposed to account for the reduction in DoB resulting from instability. While the GeoPoncelet model greatly overpredicts DoB for unstable projectiles, introduction of the empirical correction factor effectively reduces the error compared to measured DoB. An empirical relationship is proposed for as a function of the soil relative density, which can be used to accurately predict the DoB of unstable projectiles in sandy soils.
{"title":"Projectile instability during rapid sand penetration and implications for depth of burial predictions","authors":"Joseph Dinotte , Louis Giacomo , Mehdi Omidvar , Stephan Bless , Magued Iskander","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105511","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105511","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper investigates the conditions that lead to unstable projectile penetration in granular media, and examines the implications of projectile instability for the depth of burial in soil targets. A vertical ballistic range is used to launch projectiles into soil targets. A total of 39 experiments are reported at impact velocities in the range of 150-200 m/s. Two projectiles are investigated, including a conical nose cylinder and a scaled replica of the M107 artillery round, with length-to-diameter ratios (<em>L/D</em>), of 6.14 and 4.54, respectively. Photon Doppler velocimetry (PDV) and post-mortem measurements are used to resolve the projectile trajectory and depth of burial (DoB). Projectile drift and tilt from vertical penetration are measured at the DoB. It is found that the longer cone cylinder projectiles are stable in all soils tested. These projectiles develop an angle of attack at lower penetration velocities, with the off-axis drift increasing in looser soil targets. In contrast, the shorter M107 projectile are unstable in all soils tested, with the exception of the densest soil target, where the projectile maintains a stable trajectory, albeit with a significant tilt and off-axis drift. Impact velocity does not have a measurable effect on projectile stability at the velocities tested, and the presence of pore water has a secondary effect, generally reducing the magnitude of drift and tilt. The M107 projectile becomes unstable and tumbles in the majority of the experiments, thereby severely reducing the projectile DoB compared to a stable projectile. Trajectories and post-mortem measurements are used to introduce projectile instability into the GeoPoncelet phenomenological penetration model. An empirical stability correction factor, <span><math><mi>η</mi></math></span>, is proposed to account for the reduction in DoB resulting from instability. While the GeoPoncelet model greatly overpredicts DoB for unstable projectiles, introduction of the empirical correction factor effectively reduces the error compared to measured DoB. An empirical relationship is proposed for <span><math><mi>η</mi></math></span> as a function of the soil relative density, which can be used to accurately predict the DoB of unstable projectiles in sandy soils.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105511"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145528633","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-10-23DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105565
Lubing Wang , Tianhong Yao , Jiani Li , Yuxin Jiang , Xiang Gao
The safety of lithium-ion batteries in military applications is critically limited by their vulnerability under ballistic impact. This study investigates the mechanical and electrochemical failure of commercial 12.5 Ah pouch cells subjected to impact by steel ball (6.61 g, 12 mm diameter) at velocities ranging from 80 to 312 m/s through a combination of experimental and computational approaches. Four distinct damage modes are identified: Surface denting without penetration under low-velocity impacts (80–100 m/s); Projectile embedded into the battery induced by medium-low velocity impacts (100–133 m/s); Complete penetration caused by medium-high velocity impacts (133–200 m/s); Severe structural damage with material jet stemming from high-velocity impacts (200–312 m/s). Impacts above 133 m/s cause immediate voltage collapse to 0 V, signaling catastrophic short circuits. We develop a computational model that accounts the anisotropic in-plane/out-of-plane mechanical behavior of electrodes and separators, as well as the strain-rate sensitivity of all components. The model accurately predicts residual velocities after penetration and revealed the failure mechanism. We speculate that whereas the penetration channel itself does not directly cause hard short circuits, the anisotropic nature of the separator leads to crack propagation along its preferential orientation. These cracks grow longer and wider than those in the electrodes. These extended separator cracks ultimately create sufficient contact area between the cathode and anode to initiate hard short circuits.
{"title":"Revealing damage characteristics and short circuit mode of lithium-ion batteries under high-speed steel ball impact","authors":"Lubing Wang , Tianhong Yao , Jiani Li , Yuxin Jiang , Xiang Gao","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105565","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105565","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The safety of lithium-ion batteries in military applications is critically limited by their vulnerability under ballistic impact. This study investigates the mechanical and electrochemical failure of commercial 12.5 Ah pouch cells subjected to impact by steel ball (6.61 g, 12 mm diameter) at velocities ranging from 80 to 312 m/s through a combination of experimental and computational approaches. Four distinct damage modes are identified: Surface denting without penetration under low-velocity impacts (80–100 m/s); Projectile embedded into the battery induced by medium-low velocity impacts (100–133 m/s); Complete penetration caused by medium-high velocity impacts (133–200 m/s); Severe structural damage with material jet stemming from high-velocity impacts (200–312 m/s). Impacts above 133 m/s cause immediate voltage collapse to 0 V, signaling catastrophic short circuits. We develop a computational model that accounts the anisotropic in-plane/out-of-plane mechanical behavior of electrodes and separators, as well as the strain-rate sensitivity of all components. The model accurately predicts residual velocities after penetration and revealed the failure mechanism. We speculate that whereas the penetration channel itself does not directly cause hard short circuits, the anisotropic nature of the separator leads to crack propagation along its preferential orientation. These cracks grow longer and wider than those in the electrodes. These extended separator cracks ultimately create sufficient contact area between the cathode and anode to initiate hard short circuits.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105565"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145419560","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-10DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105586
Xiongwen Jiang , Yu Tang , Wei Zhang , Jun Wang , Yanjie Zhao , Lunping Zhang , Wenwei Wu
The safety of ship structures under underwater explosions depends on their stiffness and strength. The coupled loads of underwater shock waves and fragments can cause severe deformation and damage to the structures. To accurately assess this situation, a novel underwater shock wave and fragment coupled load testing system (SF-CLTS) has been developed by modifying the gas gun system. By controlling the time difference of the launching system as well as the velocities of the flyer and bullet, the time interval of the coupled loads can be adjusted. The deformation process of the target plate can be visualized using the 3D digital image correlation (3D-DIC) method combined with images captured by high-speed cameras. The dynamic deformation and damage of aluminum alloy plates under the aforementioned loads were studied by means of SF-CLTS. Meanwhile, the theoretical analysis of the impact process between the thin plate and the fluid was carried out using the energy method and the plastic hinge-spring model, with supplementary and comparative analysis using experimental data. This revealed the correlation between structural deformation and the intensity of external shock waves (peak pressure and exponential decay time). This method is crucial for the safety assessment and design of ship structures, and helps to deepen our understanding of the complex impact effects of underwater explosions.
{"title":"Investigation on the underwater explosion coupled loads testing technique and deformation response of thin plate subjected to underwater shock and fragments","authors":"Xiongwen Jiang , Yu Tang , Wei Zhang , Jun Wang , Yanjie Zhao , Lunping Zhang , Wenwei Wu","doi":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105586","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105586","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The safety of ship structures under underwater explosions depends on their stiffness and strength. The coupled loads of underwater shock waves and fragments can cause severe deformation and damage to the structures. To accurately assess this situation, a novel underwater shock wave and fragment coupled load testing system (SF-CLTS) has been developed by modifying the gas gun system. By controlling the time difference of the launching system as well as the velocities of the flyer and bullet, the time interval of the coupled loads can be adjusted. The deformation process of the target plate can be visualized using the 3D digital image correlation (3D-DIC) method combined with images captured by high-speed cameras. The dynamic deformation and damage of aluminum alloy plates under the aforementioned loads were studied by means of SF-CLTS. Meanwhile, the theoretical analysis of the impact process between the thin plate and the fluid was carried out using the energy method and the plastic hinge-spring model, with supplementary and comparative analysis using experimental data. This revealed the correlation between structural deformation and the intensity of external shock waves (peak pressure and exponential decay time). This method is crucial for the safety assessment and design of ship structures, and helps to deepen our understanding of the complex impact effects of underwater explosions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50318,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Impact Engineering","volume":"209 ","pages":"Article 105586"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145579279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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