Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-16DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104622
Javier Gallardo , Constanza Burgos , Pedro Reszka , Andrés Fuentes , Rodrigo Demarco
An experimental and theoretical study was conducted on the ignition delay time of a forest fuel layer under controlled varying radiative conditions. Experimental data were collected using the Idealized-Firebrand Ignition Test (I-FIT) apparatus, which uses a cylindrical heater to emit a linearly increasing incident heat flux. Data acquisition ensured precise temporal resolution throughout the entire test. The experimental ignition time was then compared to predictions from a theoretical model based on the energy balance of the fuel layer. A simplified analytical solution was obtained for temperature evolution, providing an estimated ignition delay time at different incident heat fluxes. This methodology provides an estimation of the critical heat flux without requiring additional experiments. Special attention was given to the ignition temperature criteria by comparing estimated values with measured quantities. To understand how assumptions affected the simplified analytical solutions, a numerical solution was also compared. The narrow scatter observed confirms the reproducibility of the thoroughly characterized I-FIT apparatus. As the heating rate slope increases, the ignition delay and total energy required decrease. While the model provides useful first-order predictions, it relies on simplifying assumptions whose implications are discussed transparently.
{"title":"Impact of linearly increasing heat flux on the ignition of wildland fuels","authors":"Javier Gallardo , Constanza Burgos , Pedro Reszka , Andrés Fuentes , Rodrigo Demarco","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104622","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104622","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>An experimental and theoretical study was conducted on the ignition delay time of a forest fuel layer under controlled varying radiative conditions. Experimental data were collected using the Idealized-Firebrand Ignition Test (I-FIT) apparatus, which uses a cylindrical heater to emit a linearly increasing incident heat flux. Data acquisition ensured precise temporal resolution throughout the entire test. The experimental ignition time was then compared to predictions from a theoretical model based on the energy balance of the fuel layer. A simplified analytical solution was obtained for temperature evolution, providing an estimated ignition delay time at different incident heat fluxes. This methodology provides an estimation of the critical heat flux without requiring additional experiments. Special attention was given to the ignition temperature criteria by comparing estimated values with measured quantities. To understand how assumptions affected the simplified analytical solutions, a numerical solution was also compared. The narrow scatter observed confirms the reproducibility of the thoroughly characterized I-FIT apparatus. As the heating rate slope increases, the ignition delay and total energy required decrease. While the model provides useful first-order predictions, it relies on simplifying assumptions whose implications are discussed transparently.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104622"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145840902","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104624
Sara Waring , Susan Giles , Caitlin Bromley , Michelle Maden , Angela Boland , Emily Ashworth , Gayatri Pandey
Fire and rescue services (FRSs) are under growing pressure to demonstrate efficiency, effectiveness, and value for money amid constrained public resources. This study provides the first comprehensive synthesis and critical appraisal of the economic evidence base on FRS activity. A scoping review of scientific and grey literature published between 2010 and 2024 consolidated analyses from the UK and internationally to determine which areas of FRS work have been economically evaluated and what methods and measures were used. Twenty-six publications met the inclusion criteria (23 quantitative, three mixed methods). A narrative synthesis of economic evaluations showed that studies have focus mainly on three domains: (i) prevention, including risk-based resource allocation; (ii) fire suppression; and (iii) inter-agency collaboration. Despite varied approaches, few studies offered transparent cost breakdowns or methodological detail, limiting comparability and generalisability. By mapping this fragmented evidence landscape, the review highlights key methodological gaps and proposes appropriate metrics for future evaluation. It establishes a foundation for more rigorous and transparent economic assessment, providing insights to inform strategic resourcing, demonstrate public value, and support evidence-led policy and investment across UK FRSs.
{"title":"Economic analysis of fire and rescue service activities: A scoping review","authors":"Sara Waring , Susan Giles , Caitlin Bromley , Michelle Maden , Angela Boland , Emily Ashworth , Gayatri Pandey","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104624","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104624","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fire and rescue services (FRSs) are under growing pressure to demonstrate efficiency, effectiveness, and value for money amid constrained public resources. This study provides the first comprehensive synthesis and critical appraisal of the economic evidence base on FRS activity. A scoping review of scientific and grey literature published between 2010 and 2024 consolidated analyses from the UK and internationally to determine which areas of FRS work have been economically evaluated and what methods and measures were used. Twenty-six publications met the inclusion criteria (23 quantitative, three mixed methods). A narrative synthesis of economic evaluations showed that studies have focus mainly on three domains: (i) prevention, including risk-based resource allocation; (ii) fire suppression; and (iii) inter-agency collaboration. Despite varied approaches, few studies offered transparent cost breakdowns or methodological detail, limiting comparability and generalisability. By mapping this fragmented evidence landscape, the review highlights key methodological gaps and proposes appropriate metrics for future evaluation. It establishes a foundation for more rigorous and transparent economic assessment, providing insights to inform strategic resourcing, demonstrate public value, and support evidence-led policy and investment across UK FRSs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104624"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145791250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104616
Bo You , Zhe Gong , Zhanjun Wu , Yi Lu , Mingyun Tang , Yuchen Song
In this paper, an environmentally friendly, efficiently adiabatic, and dynamically responsive siloxane composite hydrogel is constructed. It utilises a chemically simple, stable, and biocompatible trisiloxane wetting agent as its core, with a natural cellulose derivative, methylcellulose (MC), serving as the hydrogel matrix. Additionally, it incorporates highly efficient fire-resistant and flame-retardant additives. The composite hydrogel exhibits shear-thinning behaviour (0 < n < 1), allowing for a reduction in viscosity during pipeline transport while retaining its adhesive properties upon application. Temperature-responsive phase transitions, regulated by MC and trisiloxane concentration gradients, balance flowability, high-temperature adhesion, and rapid thermal adaptation. Enhanced thermal stability is achieved through DMMP-induced char formation, which elevates the residual yield from 6.51 % to 13.91 % and forms an insulating barrier against heat and oxygen. Standard 1A wood crib fire tests demonstrate superior performance: the optimized hydrogel extinguishes flames within 126 s, achieves an average cooling rate of 6.13 °C/s, and prevents re-ignition (compared to 150 s for water and 147 s for Class A foam). Key mechanisms include oxygen-blocking phase-change layers, deep fuel penetration via high wettability, persistent insulation from carbonized gel networks, and dynamic flame inhibition. This study provides theoretical and technical support for the development of siloxane hydrogel forest fire suppression technology, demonstrating significant academic value and potential for engineering applications.
本文构建了一种环境友好、高效绝热、动态响应的硅氧烷复合水凝胶。它以化学上简单、稳定、生物相容性好的三硅氧烷润湿剂为核心,以天然纤维素衍生物甲基纤维素(MC)作为水凝胶基质。此外,它还含有高效耐火和阻燃添加剂。复合水凝胶表现出剪切减薄行为(0 < n < 1),允许在管道运输过程中降低粘度,同时在应用时保持其粘合性能。温度响应相变,由MC和三硅氧烷浓度梯度调节,平衡流动性,高温粘附性和快速热适应。通过dmmp诱导的焦炭形成,提高了热稳定性,将剩余收率从6.51%提高到13.91%,并形成了隔热屏障。标准1A木床防火测试显示了卓越的性能:优化的水凝胶在126秒内熄灭火焰,达到6.13°C/s的平均冷却速度,并防止再燃(相比之下,水为150秒,A类泡沫为147秒)。关键机制包括阻氧相变层、通过高润湿性渗透深层燃料、与碳化凝胶网络的持久绝缘以及动态抑焰。本研究为硅氧烷水凝胶森林灭火技术的发展提供了理论和技术支持,具有重要的学术价值和工程应用潜力。
{"title":"Study on forest fire protection mechanism based on organosilicon MC composite hydrogel","authors":"Bo You , Zhe Gong , Zhanjun Wu , Yi Lu , Mingyun Tang , Yuchen Song","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104616","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104616","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this paper, an environmentally friendly, efficiently adiabatic, and dynamically responsive siloxane composite hydrogel is constructed. It utilises a chemically simple, stable, and biocompatible trisiloxane wetting agent as its core, with a natural cellulose derivative, methylcellulose (MC), serving as the hydrogel matrix. Additionally, it incorporates highly efficient fire-resistant and flame-retardant additives. The composite hydrogel exhibits shear-thinning behaviour (0 < n < 1), allowing for a reduction in viscosity during pipeline transport while retaining its adhesive properties upon application. Temperature-responsive phase transitions, regulated by MC and trisiloxane concentration gradients, balance flowability, high-temperature adhesion, and rapid thermal adaptation. Enhanced thermal stability is achieved through DMMP-induced char formation, which elevates the residual yield from 6.51 % to 13.91 % and forms an insulating barrier against heat and oxygen. Standard 1A wood crib fire tests demonstrate superior performance: the optimized hydrogel extinguishes flames within 126 s, achieves an average cooling rate of 6.13 °C/s, and prevents re-ignition (compared to 150 s for water and 147 s for Class A foam). Key mechanisms include oxygen-blocking phase-change layers, deep fuel penetration via high wettability, persistent insulation from carbonized gel networks, and dynamic flame inhibition. This study provides theoretical and technical support for the development of siloxane hydrogel forest fire suppression technology, demonstrating significant academic value and potential for engineering applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104616"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145738593","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This work investigates the heat of reaction involved in the pyrolysis of spruce wood, with a particular focus on the effect of the carrier gas flow rate. A global multi-reaction mechanism previously developed in an earlier study [1], was employed to describe mass loss behavior. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements were performed using a special fixed bed setup, enabling the analysis of gas flow rate effects on heat release. By combining the reaction scheme with a heat balance model, the heat flux measured by DSC was separated into sensible heat and reaction heat. The results showed three main decomposition stages. An exothermic peak occurred first around 320 °C, followed by an endothermic peak at 360 °C. The reaction heat of these two reactions depended on the gas flow rate, which can be explained by the competition between an exothermic secondary char formation process and an endothermic tar evaporation process. Finally, a third exothermic peak was observed at 420 °C, which was attributed to cross-linking reactions in the char. This phenomenon was found to be independent of the carrier gas flow rate. Finally, correlations were developed between the reaction heat of each reaction in the scheme and the final char yield of the sample.
{"title":"Spruce wood degradation: Specific heat and enthalpy of reactions — Effect of the gas flow rate","authors":"Hassan Flity , Yann Le Brech , Mariam Abdo , Zoubir Acem , Gilles Parent","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104608","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104608","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This work investigates the heat of reaction involved in the pyrolysis of spruce wood, with a particular focus on the effect of the carrier gas flow rate. A global multi-reaction mechanism previously developed in an earlier study <span><span>[1]</span></span>, was employed to describe mass loss behavior. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements were performed using a special fixed bed setup, enabling the analysis of gas flow rate effects on heat release. By combining the reaction scheme with a heat balance model, the heat flux measured by DSC was separated into sensible heat and reaction heat. The results showed three main decomposition stages. An exothermic peak occurred first around 320 °C, followed by an endothermic peak at 360 °C. The reaction heat of these two reactions depended on the gas flow rate, which can be explained by the competition between an exothermic secondary char formation process and an endothermic tar evaporation process. Finally, a third exothermic peak was observed at 420 °C, which was attributed to cross-linking reactions in the char. This phenomenon was found to be independent of the carrier gas flow rate. Finally, correlations were developed between the reaction heat of each reaction in the scheme and the final char yield of the sample.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104608"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145738497","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104625
Christina Liveretou , Jose Rivera , Madeleine Bardy , Carlos Fernandez-Pello , Michael Gollner , Lilly Etzenbach , Maria Thomsen , Sandra Olson , Paul Ferkul
Future spacecraft may operate at sub-atmospheric pressures and elevated oxygen concentrations to reduce preparation time for extra-vehicular activities. It is important to understand fire behavior and the fire risk of materials brought aboard a spacecraft. The limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) is one of the parameters used to determine the flammability of solid fuels. This work aims to compare the LOC for opposed flame spread extinction of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) in sub-atmospheric microgravity and Earth-gravity environments. Experiments with cylindrical PMMA samples are conducted in a combustion chamber in the Integrated Combustion Rack (CIR) on the International Space Station (ISS), as well as on laboratory facilities on Earth, at sub-atmospheric pressures with a forced flow of 10 cm/s opposed (counter-current) to the flame spread direction. The oxygen concentration in the chamber decreases naturally at a constant ambient pressure as a result of the PMMA combustion until flame extinction. Results show the LOC in microgravity is lower than at Earth gravity, meaning that flame spread can be sustained at lower oxygen concentrations in reduced buoyancy. The findings confirm that flammability test methods conducted in normal gravity and atmospheric pressure are not conservative enough for the conditions future spacecraft are expected to operate in.
{"title":"Flame extinction of thermally thick PMMA in Earth gravity versus microgravity: A comparison of Earth and on-orbit space experiments","authors":"Christina Liveretou , Jose Rivera , Madeleine Bardy , Carlos Fernandez-Pello , Michael Gollner , Lilly Etzenbach , Maria Thomsen , Sandra Olson , Paul Ferkul","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104625","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104625","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Future spacecraft may operate at sub-atmospheric pressures and elevated oxygen concentrations to reduce preparation time for extra-vehicular activities. It is important to understand fire behavior and the fire risk of materials brought aboard a spacecraft. The limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) is one of the parameters used to determine the flammability of solid fuels. This work aims to compare the LOC for opposed flame spread extinction of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) in sub-atmospheric microgravity and Earth-gravity environments. Experiments with cylindrical PMMA samples are conducted in a combustion chamber in the Integrated Combustion Rack (CIR) on the International Space Station (ISS), as well as on laboratory facilities on Earth, at sub-atmospheric pressures with a forced flow of 10 cm/s opposed (counter-current) to the flame spread direction. The oxygen concentration in the chamber decreases naturally at a constant ambient pressure as a result of the PMMA combustion until flame extinction. Results show the LOC in microgravity is lower than at Earth gravity, meaning that flame spread can be sustained at lower oxygen concentrations in reduced buoyancy. The findings confirm that flammability test methods conducted in normal gravity and atmospheric pressure are not conservative enough for the conditions future spacecraft are expected to operate in.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104625"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145791249","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-03DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104606
Soroush Rashidzadeh , Fabian Brännström , Chandan Paul , Somesh Roy , Hadi Bordbar , Simo Hostikka
This study presents a high-fidelity modeling framework for capturing non-gray radiative heat transfer in methanol pool fires. A global non-gray radiation model, based on the Rank Correlated Full Spectrum k-distribution (RC-FSK) method was implemented as a subroutine within the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). The simulations were conducted in decoupled and coupled computational fluid dynamics configurations, comparing the performance of RC-FSK to gray approach from RadCal. In the decoupled configuration, RC-FSK predictions showed strong agreement with photon Monte Carlo line-by-line (PMC-LBL) benchmark, significantly improving the accuracy of gas-phase radiative source term, radiative emission and radiative heat flux estimates. In coupled simulations, a two-zone subgrid approach was used in conjunction to RC-FSK and RadCal to model turbulence–radiation interaction. Both models reproduced the main flow features; however, RC-FSK predicted higher emission values within the flame core, resulting in a more pronounced radiative cooling effect. It also yielded elevated absorption levels, particularly in absorption-dominant regions. RadCal was shown to under-predict both radiative emission and absorption, producing a compensating effect that leads to acceptable agreement in the global integrated quantities.
{"title":"Non-gray radiation modeling of methanol pool fires using the RC-FSK method in FDS","authors":"Soroush Rashidzadeh , Fabian Brännström , Chandan Paul , Somesh Roy , Hadi Bordbar , Simo Hostikka","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104606","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104606","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study presents a high-fidelity modeling framework for capturing non-gray radiative heat transfer in methanol pool fires. A global non-gray radiation model, based on the Rank Correlated Full Spectrum <em>k</em>-distribution (RC-FSK) method was implemented as a subroutine within the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). The simulations were conducted in decoupled and coupled computational fluid dynamics configurations, comparing the performance of RC-FSK to gray approach from RadCal. In the decoupled configuration, RC-FSK predictions showed strong agreement with photon Monte Carlo line-by-line (PMC-LBL) benchmark, significantly improving the accuracy of gas-phase radiative source term, radiative emission and radiative heat flux estimates. In coupled simulations, a two-zone subgrid approach was used in conjunction to RC-FSK and RadCal to model turbulence–radiation interaction. Both models reproduced the main flow features; however, RC-FSK predicted higher emission values within the flame core, resulting in a more pronounced radiative cooling effect. It also yielded elevated absorption levels, particularly in absorption-dominant regions. RadCal was shown to under-predict both radiative emission and absorption, producing a compensating effect that leads to acceptable agreement in the global integrated quantities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104606"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145665325","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-11-29DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104601
Axel Mossberg , Cecilia Wetterqvist , Louise Holmstedt , Margaret McNamee
Calculation of the climate impact of buildings is becoming increasingly prevalent. In this context, understanding the comprehensive environmental impact of buildings, including fire risk, is crucial. This study investigates a method to incorporate the impact of fire risk on the climate footprint of buildings using Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). The paper focuses on several building types: single-family homes, apartment buildings, schools, offices, commercial buildings, and pre-schools. The analysis highlights that the inclusion of fire risk is essential for accurate climate impact assessments. By incorporating fire risk into LCA calculations, the study reveals that fire risk can contribute significantly to a building's climate impact. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that the installation of sprinkler systems can reduce the climate impact, measured in CO2-equivalents, of fire risk by up to 67–78 % in schools and commercial buildings. The findings suggest that for buildings with longer lifespans, integrating fire risk into LCA becomes increasingly important. The study concludes by recommending that policymakers and environmental certification systems incorporate fire risk considerations into LCA methodologies to ensure comprehensive and realistic assessments of buildings' climate impacts, mitigating the risk of sub-optimization of fire protective strategies due to the lack of having the complete picture in the building LCA.
{"title":"A methodology for the integration of fire risk in building life cycle analysis","authors":"Axel Mossberg , Cecilia Wetterqvist , Louise Holmstedt , Margaret McNamee","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104601","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104601","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Calculation of the climate impact of buildings is becoming increasingly prevalent. In this context, understanding the comprehensive environmental impact of buildings, including fire risk, is crucial. This study investigates a method to incorporate the impact of fire risk on the climate footprint of buildings using Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). The paper focuses on several building types: single-family homes, apartment buildings, schools, offices, commercial buildings, and pre-schools. The analysis highlights that the inclusion of fire risk is essential for accurate climate impact assessments. By incorporating fire risk into LCA calculations, the study reveals that fire risk can contribute significantly to a building's climate impact. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that the installation of sprinkler systems can reduce the climate impact, measured in CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalents, of fire risk by up to 67–78 % in schools and commercial buildings. The findings suggest that for buildings with longer lifespans, integrating fire risk into LCA becomes increasingly important. The study concludes by recommending that policymakers and environmental certification systems incorporate fire risk considerations into LCA methodologies to ensure comprehensive and realistic assessments of buildings' climate impacts, mitigating the risk of sub-optimization of fire protective strategies due to the lack of having the complete picture in the building LCA.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104601"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145665326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-02DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104603
Kai Yang , Zhaorui Zheng , Jihe Chen , Shuaishuai Huang , Yuguo Fu , Yuan Zhang , Pengfei Lv , Jing Shen , Xiangyang Du
To investigate the synergistic effects of wire mesh configuration (including quantity and spatial placement) and dust physicochemical characteristics on low-density polyethylene (LDPE) dust explosion suppression, this study through high-speed camera technology and pressure monitoring, analyzes the dynamic interactions between these critical parameters and their collective impact on flame propagation behavior and overpressure evolution patterns during explosion events. The findings demonstrate that the number of wire mesh layers (L), position, and dust characteristics exert synergistic inhibitory effects on flame propagation patterns and overpressure distribution characteristics. Single-layer metallic wire mesh structures can partially augment combustion wavefront development in particulate cloud explosions. When LDPE dust has the same particle size distribution, the average flame velocity will decrease as L increases. Additionally, it experiences an increase initially, followed by a decrease as the distance between the wire mesh and the ignition source (H) increases. The higher L of the metal wire mesh and the closer to the ignition source, the greater its extinguishing effect on the explosion flame. Meanwhile, this will concurrently increase the distribution of overpressure in the pipeline, resulting in non-uniformity. Overpressure at the pipe base is correlated negatively with particle size, positively with L, increases and then decreases with the increase of H and dust cloud concentration (C). Furthermore, if H is positioned less than 0.45 m, enhancing the layer quantity, or spacing can inversely diminish the pressure relief effectiveness. Consequently, integrating the interplay of C, particle size, L, and H is crucial in metal wire mesh-based explosion mitigation designs.
{"title":"Research on the suppression effect of wire mesh on low - density polyethylene dust explosion","authors":"Kai Yang , Zhaorui Zheng , Jihe Chen , Shuaishuai Huang , Yuguo Fu , Yuan Zhang , Pengfei Lv , Jing Shen , Xiangyang Du","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104603","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104603","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To investigate the synergistic effects of wire mesh configuration (including quantity and spatial placement) and dust physicochemical characteristics on low-density polyethylene (LDPE) dust explosion suppression, this study through high-speed camera technology and pressure monitoring, analyzes the dynamic interactions between these critical parameters and their collective impact on flame propagation behavior and overpressure evolution patterns during explosion events. The findings demonstrate that the number of wire mesh layers (L), position, and dust characteristics exert synergistic inhibitory effects on flame propagation patterns and overpressure distribution characteristics. Single-layer metallic wire mesh structures can partially augment combustion wavefront development in particulate cloud explosions. When LDPE dust has the same particle size distribution, the average flame velocity will decrease as L increases. Additionally, it experiences an increase initially, followed by a decrease as the distance between the wire mesh and the ignition source (H) increases. The higher L of the metal wire mesh and the closer to the ignition source, the greater its extinguishing effect on the explosion flame. Meanwhile, this will concurrently increase the distribution of overpressure in the pipeline, resulting in non-uniformity. Overpressure at the pipe base is correlated negatively with particle size, positively with L, increases and then decreases with the increase of H and dust cloud concentration (C). Furthermore, if H is positioned less than 0.45 m, enhancing the layer quantity, or spacing can inversely diminish the pressure relief effectiveness. Consequently, integrating the interplay of C, particle size, L, and H is crucial in metal wire mesh-based explosion mitigation designs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104603"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145665690","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-05-01Epub Date: 2025-12-05DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104607
Abdul Kader M. El Hamoui, Elie G. Hantouche
This paper presents the explicit and implicit approaches for predicting the thermal creep behavior of steel at high temperatures. The explicit creep modeling is defined when the steel material is subjected to constant load and temperature conditions, and the only variable is time. The creep strains are added directly into the strain profile of the cross section of the steel material. This approach can be performed using experimental work and finite element (FE) simulations. The implicit creep modeling is defined when the steel material is subjected to variable stress or temperature or both together. In this case, the creep strains are implicitly included in the stress-strain curve of the material. The selection between the two approaches is presented in this paper based on a comprehensive synthesis of the characteristics, applications, advantages, and limitations of both approaches, emphasizing their practical relevance in the structural fire engineering field. Through comparison, the study shows that while the explicit creep approach is effective for steady-state fire analysis, implicit creep offers a more realistic approach for predicting creep behavior under varying temperatures and loads. A methodology for explicit creep modeling is developed, including modifications to existing creep models and their implementation in the Abaqus software. Although implicit modeling in the FE software lacks standardized methodology, its predictive capabilities are crucial for designing fire-resistant steel structures. These two modeling approaches provide critical insights that allow engineers to understand the creep behavior of steel in fire-exposed structures and to choose the most suitable approach for the case that is being studied.
{"title":"Thermal creep behavior in structural steel: Explicit vs. implicit approach","authors":"Abdul Kader M. El Hamoui, Elie G. Hantouche","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104607","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104607","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper presents the explicit and implicit approaches for predicting the thermal creep behavior of steel at high temperatures. The explicit creep modeling is defined when the steel material is subjected to constant load and temperature conditions, and the only variable is time. The creep strains are added directly into the strain profile of the cross section of the steel material. This approach can be performed using experimental work and finite element (FE) simulations. The implicit creep modeling is defined when the steel material is subjected to variable stress or temperature or both together. In this case, the creep strains are implicitly included in the stress-strain curve of the material. The selection between the two approaches is presented in this paper based on a comprehensive synthesis of the characteristics, applications, advantages, and limitations of both approaches, emphasizing their practical relevance in the structural fire engineering field. Through comparison, the study shows that while the explicit creep approach is effective for steady-state fire analysis, implicit creep offers a more realistic approach for predicting creep behavior under varying temperatures and loads. A methodology for explicit creep modeling is developed, including modifications to existing creep models and their implementation in the Abaqus software. Although implicit modeling in the FE software lacks standardized methodology, its predictive capabilities are crucial for designing fire-resistant steel structures. These two modeling approaches provide critical insights that allow engineers to understand the creep behavior of steel in fire-exposed structures and to choose the most suitable approach for the case that is being studied.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"160 ","pages":"Article 104607"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145738499","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-01Epub Date: 2025-11-07DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104586
Jinyu Li , Shaojun Zhu , Guo-Qiang Li , Yongchang Wang
Steel tubular space truss structures are widely utilized in large-space buildings but are highly susceptible to collapse under fire conditions, posing a threat to firefighters. This study conducts extensive parametric analyses to understand all fire-induced collapse modes and mechanisms of steel tubular space trusses. There are four collapse modes, of which three are categorized as ductile and one is classified as brittle due to buckling of the web members in compression. Under the brittle collapse mode, it is difficult to reliably predict the collapse of the structure for real-time early warning. This paper recommends the elimination of this failure mode in all likely fire scenarios. A design strategy is proposed to ensure that the brittle buckling failure mode of web members does not happen before that of the adjacent members in tension, whose failure is ductile. Besides, the available escape time after the early warning level is issued can be changed by adjusting the critical temperatures of the compression web members. Numerical examples demonstrate that the available escape time can increase from 0 s to over 2 min, which increases the escape time for firefighters in large-span steel structures.
{"title":"Preventing fire-induced brittle collapse of steel tubular space trusses for reliable early warning: From mechanisms to design strategy","authors":"Jinyu Li , Shaojun Zhu , Guo-Qiang Li , Yongchang Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104586","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104586","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Steel tubular space truss structures are widely utilized in large-space buildings but are highly susceptible to collapse under fire conditions, posing a threat to firefighters. This study conducts extensive parametric analyses to understand all fire-induced collapse modes and mechanisms of steel tubular space trusses. There are four collapse modes, of which three are categorized as ductile and one is classified as brittle due to buckling of the web members in compression. Under the brittle collapse mode, it is difficult to reliably predict the collapse of the structure for real-time early warning. This paper recommends the elimination of this failure mode in all likely fire scenarios. A design strategy is proposed to ensure that the brittle buckling failure mode of web members does not happen before that of the adjacent members in tension, whose failure is ductile. Besides, the available escape time after the early warning level is issued can be changed by adjusting the critical temperatures of the compression web members. Numerical examples demonstrate that the available escape time can increase from 0 s to over 2 min, which increases the escape time for firefighters in large-span steel structures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"159 ","pages":"Article 104586"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145529233","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}