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Analysis of visual and acoustic measures for self-evacuations in road tunnels using virtual reality 利用虚拟现实技术分析公路隧道自救的视觉和声学措施
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104224
Jo Skjermo , Claudia Moscoso , Daniel Nilsson , Håkan Frantzich , Åsa S. Hoem , Petter Arnesen , Gunnar D. Jenssen

Emergency fire situations in tunnels can be especially dangerous when occurring in long underground or subsea tunnels, particularly when evacuation on foot is the only alternative. This paper presents the results from a study comparing different visual and acoustic measures to facilitate efficient and safe emergency evacuation and their effect on people's self-rescue behaviour in response to a tunnel fire. Eighty-one participants evaluated seven different scenarios in virtual reality with or without visual and acoustic supporting measures (i.e. signs, lights, acoustic beacons) to find their way to emergency doors. Objective behavioural data, such as orientation, and walking speed, were collected. The results suggest that the distance between the emergency doors increases uncertainty and affects the time to self-rescue significantly, with four times longer times for 500 m than 250 m between doors. Additionally, the use of continuous guiding lights positively supported orientation and walking speed, with 97 % of the participants finding their way and showing a reduction of time to reach the emergency door of 10–20 s. The study underscores the importance in the proper visual and acoustic evacuation measures for the wayfinding of emergency exits, improving self-rescue of people.

隧道中的紧急火灾情况如果发生在较长的地下或海底隧道中,尤其是当徒步疏散是唯一的选择时,就会特别危险。本文介绍了一项研究的结果,该研究比较了促进高效安全紧急疏散的不同视觉和声学措施及其对人们在应对隧道火灾时的自救行为的影响。81 名参与者在虚拟现实中评估了七种不同的场景,在有或没有视觉和声学辅助措施(即标志、灯光、声学信标)的情况下,他们都能找到通往应急门的道路。研究收集了客观行为数据,如方向和行走速度。结果表明,紧急救援门之间的距离增加了不确定性,对自救时间的影响很大,门与门之间 500 米的距离要比 250 米的距离长四倍。此外,使用连续的引导灯对定向和步行速度有积极的帮助,97% 的参与者都能找到自己的方向,到达紧急出口的时间也缩短了 10-20 秒。这项研究强调了适当的视觉和声学疏散措施对寻找紧急出口、提高人员自救能力的重要性。
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引用次数: 0
Suppression effects of different extinguishing agents on vent gases fires from lithium-ion batteries after thermal runaway: A comprehensive experimental and numerical study 不同灭火剂对热失控后锂离子电池排出气体火灾的抑制效果:综合实验和数值研究
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104227
Shilin Wang , Xu Gong , Ruihua Shao , Lejun Xu , Yitong Li , Fenfen He , Qinzheng Wang , Xi Wang , Huaibin Wang , Chengshan Xu , Xuning Feng

During the thermal runaway process of lithium-ion batteries, the release of vaporized electrolyte and combustible gases can lead to the formation of a jet flame, posing a significant fire or explosion risk. In order to deal with the threat of lithium-ion battery vent gas fires to the safety of energy storage power stations, it's crucial to identify effective fire extinguishing agents for lithium-ion battery systems. This study employs a combination of experimental and numerical simulation methods to assess the suppression capabilities of CO2, N2, and HFC-227ea on vent gas/air premixed flames originating from lithium-ion batteries with various cathode materials. Laminar flame speed of vent gas/air/extinguishing agent premixed flames at specific equivalence ratios were measured using a Bunsen burner device under ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions. Additionally, numerical calculations of laminar flame speed and adiabatic flame temperature were conducted using CHEMKIN-Pro, accompanied by an analysis of the chemical inhibition mechanism of HFC-227ea. The findings reveal that although HFC-227ea may slightly elevate the adiabatic flame temperature at lower equivalence ratios, its overall fire extinguishing efficacy surpasses that of CO2 and N2. These results offer valuable insights for selecting appropriate fire extinguishing agents for energy storage power stations, thereby enhancing the safety standards of energy storage systems.

在锂离子电池的热失控过程中,汽化的电解质和可燃气体的释放会导致喷射火焰的形成,从而带来巨大的火灾或爆炸风险。为了应对锂离子电池放空气体火灾对储能电站安全的威胁,确定锂离子电池系统的有效灭火剂至关重要。本研究采用实验和数值模拟相结合的方法,评估了 CO2、N2 和 HFC-227ea 对来自不同正极材料锂离子电池的放空气体/空气预混合火焰的抑制能力。在环境温度和大气压力条件下,使用本生灯装置测量了特定当量比的放空气体/空气/灭火剂预混合火焰的层状火焰速度。此外,还使用 CHEMKIN-Pro 对层流火焰速度和绝热火焰温度进行了数值计算,并对 HFC-227ea 的化学抑制机制进行了分析。研究结果表明,虽然 HFC-227ea 在较低当量比时可能会略微升高绝热火焰温度,但其总体灭火效果超过了 CO2 和 N2。这些结果为储能电站选择合适的灭火剂提供了宝贵的启示,从而提高了储能系统的安全标准。
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引用次数: 0
Full-scale hybrid fire test in real-time with multiple degree of freedom 多自由度实时混合火力测试
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104233
Silvio Renard , Jean-Christophe Mindeguia , Fabienne Robert , Stéphane Morel , Jean-Marc Franssen

To experimentally assess the fire resistance of civil structures, testing whole structures is very costly but the standard tests on individual structural elements can sometimes be too simplistic, regarding their boundary conditions. Hybrid fire testing offers a promising solution to these limitations, but performing such tests is technically challenging and few full-scale tests have been conducted. Current approaches rely on high-performance sensors and actuator systems, as well as assumptions about the stiffness of the tested element. This paper presents the detailed methodology and results of a full-scale, real-time test with 3 degrees of freedom on a concrete beam. The use of an adaptive controller allowed for maintaining stability and achieving reasonable precision despite the use of relatively low-precision sensors, regular hydraulic actuators, and no assumptions about the tested element’s stiffness. The comparison with the same element tested using a standard fire resistance test demonstrates the usefulness of this technique in achieving a more accurate representation of the performance of the tested element in realistic conditions.

要对民用建筑的耐火性能进行实验评估,对整体结构进行测试的成本非常高,但对单个结构元素进行的标准测试有时在边界条件方面过于简单。混合防火测试为解决这些限制提供了一个很有前景的方案,但进行此类测试在技术上具有挑战性,而且很少进行全尺寸测试。目前的方法依赖于高性能传感器和执行器系统,以及对被测构件刚度的假设。本文介绍了对混凝土梁进行 3 自由度全尺寸实时测试的详细方法和结果。尽管使用了精度相对较低的传感器、普通液压致动器,并且没有对测试元件的刚度进行假设,但使用自适应控制器仍能保持稳定并达到合理的精度。通过与使用标准耐火试验测试的相同构件进行比较,证明了该技术在更准确地反映受测构件在现实条件下的性能方面的有用性。
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引用次数: 0
Experimental observation of crack formation on surface of charring timber 炭化木材表面裂缝形成的实验观察
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104231
Aleksi Rinta-Paavola , Andrea Ferrantelli , Simo Hostikka

Crack formation on the charring surface of burning wood is an important factor increasing the burning rate by offering a passage for heat and oxygen, but it remains a poorly understood process. This work considers crack formation on pyrolyzing Norway spruce, Scots pine and birch timbers. Timber specimens of different sizes were tested under various radiative heat fluxes in nitrogen atmosphere. The cracking process was followed with an infrared camera mounted above the specimen. The obtained recordings were used to determine the formation times and lengths of cracks and to estimate the validity of an existing thermomechanical model for crack formation. The results show that the crack formation time has no significant dependence on the specimen geometry. Further, the inverse of the square root of crack formation time follows grows linearly with external heat flux, which is a similar dependence as with time for ignition, according to the thermal model of ignition. The analytical model predictions were of correct order of magnitude, but not consistently accurate at all experimental conditions. This could be accounted for the simplifying assumptions within the analytical model, and therefore creating a more detailed three-dimensional numerical model for crack formation is suggested as future research.

木材烧焦表面裂纹的形成是一个重要因素,它为热量和氧气提供了通道,从而提高了燃烧速度,但人们对这一过程仍然知之甚少。这项研究探讨了挪威云杉、苏格兰松木和桦木热解过程中裂纹的形成。在氮气环境中的各种辐射热通量条件下,对不同尺寸的木材试样进行了测试。安装在试样上方的红外摄像机跟踪了开裂过程。所获得的记录用于确定裂纹的形成时间和长度,以及估算现有裂纹形成热力学模型的有效性。结果表明,裂纹形成时间与试样的几何形状没有明显的关系。此外,根据点火热模型,裂纹形成时间平方根的倒数与外部热通量呈线性增长,这与点火时间的关系类似。分析模型的预测数量级正确,但并非在所有实验条件下都始终准确。这可能与分析模型中的简化假设有关,因此建议在今后的研究中建立一个更详细的裂纹形成三维数值模型。
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引用次数: 0
Empirical study on the influence of initial relative humidity on wood crib fire behavior in compartment under varied natural ventilation conditions 不同自然通风条件下初始相对湿度对隔间木床火灾行为影响的经验研究
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104229
Seyed Ahmad Kebriyaee, Mohammad Moghiman, Hamid Niazmand

This empirical study investigates the influence of initial relative humidity (RH) variations (35 % and 95 %) on key fire behavior parameters, specifically focusing on the fully developed stage, occurrences of flashover, and the temperature of the upper gas layer. Wooden cribs weighing 10 kg–40 kg are used as fuel in a compartment with three openings to establish different natural ventilation conditions. The experimental findings reveal that increasing the initial RH within the chamber leads to a delay in the onset of the fire growth phase. Furthermore, it induces two noticeable effects on the fully developed fire stage: a reduction in its duration by up to 50 % and a delay in its initiation by at least 30 s. While heightened initial RH does not prevent flashover, it effectively postpones its occurrence by a minimum of 40 s. Experiments with maximum fuel loads demonstrate negligible effects of increased RH on the maximum temperature, even under varying ventilation conditions. Conversely, lower fuel loads exhibit a significant decline in temperature with rising humidity, notably from 626 °C to 474 °C. The quantitative and qualitative insights derived from this study have considerable potential to inform the development of more effective fire suppression strategies in enclosed compartments.

本实证研究调查了初始相对湿度(35 % 和 95 %)变化对主要火灾行为参数的影响,特别侧重于完全发展阶段、闪燃发生率和上气层温度。在一个有三个开口的隔间中,使用重量为 10 公斤至 40 公斤的木箱作为燃料,以建立不同的自然通风条件。实验结果表明,提高舱内的初始相对湿度会导致火灾增长阶段的延迟。此外,它还对完全燃烧阶段产生了两个明显的影响:持续时间缩短了 50%,起火时间至少推迟了 30 秒。相反,燃料负荷较低时,温度会随着湿度的升高而显著下降,特别是从 626 °C 降到 474 °C。从这项研究中获得的定量和定性见解具有相当大的潜力,可为制定更有效的封闭舱室灭火策略提供参考。
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引用次数: 0
Full-field temperature prediction in tunnel fires using limited monitored ceiling flow temperature data with transformer-based deep learning models 使用基于变压器的深度学习模型,利用有限的监测顶流温度数据预测隧道火灾中的全场温度
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104232
Xin Guo , Dong Yang , Li Jiang , Tao Du , Shan Lyu

In practical tunnel scenarios, full-field coverage of sensors is impractical and costly. During a tunnel fire, the available information is constrained and localized, making the prediction of full-field smoke temperature distribution becoming a noteworthy challenge. This study proposes a transformer-based deep learning model to predict full-field smoke temperature distributions during fire incidents in real-time using limited temporal data from the sensors installed in localized regions below the ceiling, considering heat release rate of the fire source is unknown. The results indicate that proposed approach can predict the longitudinal temperature distribution throughout the tunnel with a length of 750 m by leveraging temperature data from limited sensors within a monitoring length of 210 m. It can further predict the vertical temperature profiles, and eventually estimate the full-field temperature distribution within the tunnel. The transformer model achieved R2 of 0.95 and 0.87 for longitudinal and vertical temperature distribution predictions, respectively. Under the influence of the self-attention mechanism, the transformer model has an advantage over the long short-term memory model in capturing global information, enhancing the accuracy of longitudinal temperature distribution predictions by 18.8 %. This study significantly contributes to effective emergency response and rescue strategies during tunnel fire incidents.

在实际的隧道场景中,传感器的全场覆盖是不切实际的,而且成本高昂。在隧道火灾中,可用信息是有限的、局部的,因此预测全场烟温分布成为一个值得注意的挑战。本研究提出了一种基于变压器的深度学习模型,利用安装在天花板以下局部区域的传感器提供的有限时间数据,实时预测火灾事故中的全场烟温分布,同时考虑到火源的热释放率是未知的。结果表明,所提出的方法可以利用 210 米监测长度内有限传感器的温度数据,预测整个 750 米长隧道的纵向温度分布,并进一步预测垂直温度剖面,最终估算出隧道内的全场温度分布。变压器模型在纵向和垂直温度分布预测方面的 R2 分别达到了 0.95 和 0.87。在自注意机制的影响下,变压器模型在捕捉全局信息方面比长短时记忆模型更具优势,使纵向温度分布预测的准确性提高了 18.8%。这项研究大大有助于在隧道火灾事故中采取有效的应急响应和救援策略。
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引用次数: 0
Experimental investigation on the fire performance of wood bio-concrete using Cone Calorimeter 使用锥形量热计对木质生物混凝土的防火性能进行实验研究
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104225
Amanda L.D. Aguiar , Bruno M.C. Gomes , Monique A.F.R. Nascimento , Alexandre Landesmann , Romildo D. Toledo Filho

Nowadays, wood bio-concrete (WBC) can be seen as an alternative to reduce environmental impacts of the construction industry. The behavior of this material under fire conditions, however, is still poorly understood. In this sense, this work aims to investigate the behavior of wood bio-concrete under fire conditions. In this study, the wood shavings content varied from 40 to 90 %. A Mass Loss Cone Calorimeter with an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2 was used to analyze the combustion and reaction to fire of WBCs. Then, properties such as heat release rate, total heat released, total mass loss, mass loss rate, effective heat of combustion, time to ignition and temperature of ignition were evaluated. Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to better explain the results from the Cone Calorimeter tests. The results showed that the cementitious matrix promoted the protection of the wood and no ignition was observed for the materials studied, excepted when 90 % of shavings were used. The lower the density of the bio-concrete, the higher the values of combustion properties. This study confirmed that, under high heat flux conditions, most of the WBCs did not exhibit characteristics that promote ignition or flame propagation.

如今,木质生物混凝土(WBC)已被视为减少建筑业对环境影响的一种替代材料。然而,人们对这种材料在火灾条件下的行为仍然知之甚少。因此,本研究旨在探讨木质生物混凝土在火灾条件下的行为。在这项研究中,木屑的含量从 40% 到 90% 不等。使用入射热通量为 50 kW/m2 的质量损失锥形量热仪分析木质生物混凝土的燃烧和火灾反应。然后,对热释放率、总热释放量、总质量损失、质量损失率、有效燃烧热、点火时间和点火温度等特性进行了评估。热重分析(TG)和扫描电子显微镜(SEM)被用来更好地解释锥形量热计测试的结果。结果表明,水泥基质促进了对木材的保护,除使用 90% 的刨花外,所研究的材料均未观察到着火现象。生物混凝土的密度越低,燃烧性能值越高。这项研究证实,在高热通量条件下,大多数 WBC 不会表现出促进点燃或火焰传播的特性。
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引用次数: 0
Smoldering ignition and transition to flaming in wooden mulch beds exposed to firebrands under wind 在风力作用下,木质地膜床暴露在火苗下,燃烧并过渡到燃烧
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104226
Shaorun Lin , Chengze Li , Mackenzie Conkling , Xinyan Huang , Stephen L. Quarles , Michael J. Gollner

Spotting ignition by firebrands is a significant fire spread pathway at the wildland-urban interface (WUI), where mulch products are commonly used as landscaping materials. Mulch is typically organic in nature, thus it may be easily ignited into a smoldering mode by firebrands and subsequently transition to flaming, leading to direct flame contact and radiant heat exposure to siding materials of adjacent structures. This work quantified the thresholds of smoldering ignition of four common types of commercially available mulch (black mulch (BM), forest floor (FF), redwood (RW), and fir bark (FB)) exposed to heating by smoldering firebrand piles, and their propensity for smoldering-to-flaming transition under external winds (up to 1.4 m/s). We found that there was a minimum mass of firebrand pile to achieve smoldering ignition of mulch (e.g., ∼0.1 g for FF). Beyond this minimum mass, the required wind speed to trigger smoldering ignition generally decreased as the mass of the firebrand pile increased, agreeing well with theoretical analysis. After smoldering ignition, smoldering-to-flaming transition could be observed when the wind speed exceeded a critical value (e.g., ∼1 m/s for FF), which was not affected by the initial spotting process. To achieve smoldering-to-flaming transition, the glowing mulch had to reach a critical temperature of around 850 °C. Mulch samples with larger particle sizes were more likely to smolder and transition to flaming, due to increased oxygen supply through larger inter-particle pores and channels and better firebrand accumulation due to a more crevice-like geometry on the fuel surface. This work advances the fundamental understanding of the ignition and burning behavior of landscaping mulches, and thus contributes to the prevention of extreme WUI fire events.

在通常使用地膜产品作为景观美化材料的荒地-城市交界处(WUI),火带的点燃是火灾蔓延的一个重要途径。地膜通常是有机物,因此很容易被火烧带点燃,进入燃烧模式,随后转变为火焰,导致火焰直接接触邻近建筑物的护墙板材料并产生辐射热。这项研究量化了四种常见市售地膜(黑色地膜 (BM)、林地地膜 (FF)、红木地膜 (RW) 和杉树皮地膜 (FB))暴露在燃烧的火绒堆加热下的燃烧阈值,以及它们在外部风力(最大 1.4 米/秒)作用下从燃烧向燃烧过渡的倾向。我们发现,要实现地膜的燃烧点火,火烧堆的质量必须达到一个最小值(例如,FF 的火烧堆质量为 0.1 克)。超过这个最小质量后,引发燃烧点火所需的风速一般会随着火绒质量的增加而降低,这与理论分析非常吻合。燃烧点火后,当风速超过临界值(例如,FF 的风速为 1 m/s)时,可以观察到从燃烧到着火的转变,而这一转变不受初始点火过程的影响。要实现从燃烧到燃烧的转变,发光地膜必须达到约 850 °C 的临界温度。颗粒尺寸较大的地膜样品更容易燃烧并过渡到燃烧,这是由于通过较大的颗粒间孔隙和通道增加了氧气供应,并且由于燃料表面的几何形状更像裂缝,因此火苗积累得更好。这项工作从根本上加深了人们对景观美化地膜的点火和燃烧行为的了解,从而有助于预防极端的 WUI 火灾事件。
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引用次数: 0
High-performance real-time fire detection and forecasting framework for industrial cables 用于工业电缆的高性能实时火灾探测和预测框架
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104228
Wanfeng Sun, Haibo Gao, Cheng Li

In industrial scenarios, cable fires have always been the most common threat, and traditional fire detection systems often rely on a large number of sensors, and the detection range is very limited, and it is impossible to effectively predict the fire situation in time. In this paper, we propose a detection and prediction scheme for industrial cable fire, which breaks the limitations of the previous research on multi-sensor signal input, and highly couples the detection and prediction modules to realize fire prediction based on video image input only. In fire detection, we design an object detection model using HSV for flame feature enhancement based on YOLOv8, and in fire prediction aspect, we use iTransformer as a time series prediction model to mine the correlation between various parameters to predict the spread of fire. In the experiments, the average absolute percentage error of the flame detection model for the detection of flame height, width and longitudinal position was 3.49%–10.64 %, 2.45%–8.89 % and 1.61%–9.31 %, respectively, and the MAPE of the time series prediction model for the above three parameters was 11.18%–15.06 % and 4.35%–8.18 %, 3.37%–6.62 %.The results of the above experiments verify that the proposed model has the ability to quantitatively analyze the fire spread trend in the actual fire and help firefighters make decisions.

在工业场景中,电缆火灾一直是最常见的威胁,而传统的火灾探测系统往往依赖大量传感器,探测范围十分有限,无法及时有效地预测火情。本文提出了一种针对工业电缆火灾的检测和预测方案,打破了以往研究多传感器信号输入的局限性,将检测和预测模块高度耦合,实现了仅基于视频图像输入的火灾预测。在火灾检测方面,我们基于 YOLOv8 设计了使用 HSV 进行火焰特征增强的物体检测模型;在火灾预测方面,我们使用 iTransformer 作为时间序列预测模型,挖掘各种参数之间的相关性来预测火灾的蔓延。在实验中,火焰检测模型对火焰高度、宽度和纵向位置检测的平均绝对百分比误差分别为 3.49%-10.64 %、2.45%-8.89 % 和 1.61%-9.31 %,时间序列预测模型对上述三个参数的 MAPE 分别为 11.18%-15.06 %和4.35%-8.18 %、3.37%-6.62 %。上述实验结果验证了所提出的模型具有定量分析实际火灾中火势蔓延趋势的能力,有助于消防人员做出决策。
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引用次数: 0
Experimental study on the inertization of wood-based biomass with solid inerts 木质生物质与固体惰性物质惰性化实验研究
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q2 ENGINEERING, CIVIL Pub Date : 2024-07-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2024.104223
Nieves Fernandez-Anez, Bjarne C. Hagen

Wood pellets are one of the primary solid substitutes for fossil fuels worldwide. They present both advantages and disadvantages that have been widely studied, where one of the main disadvantages is the risk of self-heating, which may lead to smouldering combustion or explosion. The risk of smouldering increases with decreasing particle size, while the difference in fire behaviour due to particle sizes needs to be studied in more detail. One of the techniques used to avoid, or decrease, the risk of smouldering is inertization. Inertization with gases is ineffective due to the difficulty gas has in accessing all voids in solid materials. An alternative solution is to use inert solids instead of gas.

This research empirically studies the fire behaviour of wood pellets and wood dust with particle size of less than 1 mm, and the influence of solid inertization in both materials in two different configurations: mixed and layered. The ignition initiation of both particle sizes is similar, while the cool-down phase is quicker in the case of dust. However, inertization of dust needs a significantly higher amount of inert solids than in the case of pellets, being easier to avoid smouldering when the inerts are disposed in layers rather than mixed with the materials.

木质颗粒是全球化石燃料的主要固体替代品之一。它们的优点和缺点都已被广泛研究,其中一个主要缺点是有自热的风险,可能导致闷烧或爆炸。烟熏的风险随着颗粒大小的减小而增加,而颗粒大小导致的火灾行为差异还需要更详细的研究。惰化是避免或降低烟熏风险的技术之一。由于气体难以进入固体材料的所有空隙,因此使用气体惰化的效果不佳。本研究对粒径小于 1 毫米的木粒和木粉的燃烧行为进行了实证研究,并研究了两种不同结构(混合结构和分层结构)的固体惰化对这两种材料的影响。两种粒度的起火过程相似,而粉尘的冷却阶段更快。不过,粉尘的惰性化所需的惰性固体量明显高于颗粒,当惰性物质分层放置而不是与材料混合时,更容易避免烟熏。
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引用次数: 0
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Fire Safety Journal
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