Pub Date : 2026-01-27DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110186
Hongxing Liu , Xianyue Li , Jirí Šimůnek , Jianwen Yan , Qi Hu , Ning Chen , Yuehong Zhang , Wenhao Ren , Bokai Yang
The alternate use or blending of fresh and brackish waters can effectively control salt accumulation in the root zone during crop growth. In arid areas with limited freshwater, this method can be enhanced through desalination technologies. The brackish-freshwater sequential irrigation strategy (BFSI) is promoted for its lower salt stress and freshwater amount. However, the dynamics of soil salinity and the optimal proportion of brackish water (Pbw) under the BFSI strategy are unclear. To address this, the HYDRUS (2D/3D) model was calibrated and validated using experimental data from the Hetao Irrigation District in Northern China during 2023–2024. Five irrigation treatments with different Pbw (0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 %, 100 %) were evaluated. The model accurately simulated ECe changes (R² = 0.96, RMSE = 0.19 dS m−1). Higher Pbw was associated with higher ECe and salt stress and lower root length density (RLD). Meanwhile, roots showed salt-avoidance behavior with deeper growth under higher Pbw, especially during the filling stage. The highest ECe and salt stress occurred in the later corn growth stage and the 0–40 cm soil layer. The salt stress index (SSIroot), which accounts for the spatial root distribution, is proposed. The index shows a significant relationship with corn yield than ECe, RLD, and different degrees of salt stress. Scenario analysis revealed that a Pbw of 65 % resulted in the lowest increases in ECe and SSIroot, while RLD and corn yield decreased only by 9.7 % and 14.0 %, respectively. Therefore, a Pbw of 65 % is recommended to maximize brackish water utilization with minimal yield loss.
{"title":"Experimental and numerical evaluation of salinity dynamics in a drip cornfield of Northern China irrigated using different proportions of brackish water","authors":"Hongxing Liu , Xianyue Li , Jirí Šimůnek , Jianwen Yan , Qi Hu , Ning Chen , Yuehong Zhang , Wenhao Ren , Bokai Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110186","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110186","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The alternate use or blending of fresh and brackish waters can effectively control salt accumulation in the root zone during crop growth. In arid areas with limited freshwater, this method can be enhanced through desalination technologies. The brackish-freshwater sequential irrigation strategy (BFSI) is promoted for its lower salt stress and freshwater amount. However, the dynamics of soil salinity and the optimal proportion of brackish water (<em>P</em><sub>bw</sub>) under the BFSI strategy are unclear. To address this, the HYDRUS (2D/3D) model was calibrated and validated using experimental data from the Hetao Irrigation District in Northern China during 2023–2024. Five irrigation treatments with different <em>P</em><sub>bw</sub> (0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 %, 100 %) were evaluated. The model accurately simulated <em>EC</em><sub>e</sub> changes (<em>R</em>² = 0.96, <em>RMSE</em> = 0.19 dS m<sup>−1</sup>). Higher <em>P</em><sub>bw</sub> was associated with higher <em>EC</em><sub><em>e</em></sub> and salt stress and lower root length density (<em>RLD</em>). Meanwhile, roots showed salt-avoidance behavior with deeper growth under higher <em>P</em><sub>bw</sub>, especially during the filling stage. The highest <em>EC</em><sub><em>e</em></sub> and salt stress occurred in the later corn growth stage and the 0–40 cm soil layer. The salt stress index (<em>SSI</em><sub><em>root</em></sub>), which accounts for the spatial root distribution, is proposed. The index shows a significant relationship with corn yield than <em>EC</em><sub>e</sub>, <em>RLD</em>, and different degrees of salt stress. Scenario analysis revealed that a <em>P</em><sub>bw</sub> of 65 % resulted in the lowest increases in <em>EC</em><sub>e</sub> and <em>SSI</em><sub><em>root</em></sub>, while <em>RLD</em> and corn yield decreased only by 9.7 % and 14.0 %, respectively. Therefore, a <em>P</em><sub><em>bw</em></sub> of 65 % is recommended to maximize brackish water utilization with minimal yield loss.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110186"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146071664","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-26DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110175
Mengxuan Shao , Haijun Liu , Wenwen Ju
Drip fertigation technology combined with optimal plant density (PD) and nitrogen application rate (Nrate) management is a critical strategy for closing the yield gap in arid regions of Northwest China. A three-year field experiment (2021–2023) was conducted in Hetao Irrigation District (HID) to determine the effects of PD and Nrate on crop growth, grain yield (GY), water productivity (WP), radiation use efficiency (RUE), and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of drip-fertigated spring maize (Zea mays L.). Four plant densities (D1: 60,000 plants hm−2, D2: 75,000 plants hm−2, D3: 90,000 plants hm−2, D4: 105,000 plants hm−2) and three N application rates (N1: 200 kg hm−2, N2: 250 kg hm−2, N3: 300 kg hm−2) were considered. Separate annual analyses indicated PD as the main factor governing population establishment and resource utilization, with a greater effect size than Nrate and their interaction. Increasing density from D1 to D3 significantly enhanced plant height (HVT), leaf area index (LAIVT), population-level aboveground dry matter (DMP), and nitrogen uptake (NutP) by 6.30 %, 52.8 %, 21.0 %, and 11.2 %, respectively, ultimately rising GY by 28.9 %. The D3N3 achieved the highest DMP and NutP, exceeding other combinations by 17.0 % and 16.4 %, while D3N2 resulted in optimal GY, WP, and RUE, exceeding other combinations by 14.5 %, 16.5 %, and 10.2 %. However, a further increase to D4 induced negative effects, reducing DMP, NutP, GY, WP, and RUE by 6.80 %, 14.0 %, 4.33 %, 8.98 %, and 5.19 %, respectively, although NUE improved by 11.2 %. Linear mixed models also confirmed the dominant role of density. Although the PD×Nrate interaction was not statistically significant, the Nrate effect varied with PD environment. Specifically, N3 suppressed plant growth at D1, limiting HVT, LAIVT, and DMP. Moderate N2 resulted in optimal GY, WP, and RUE at densities from D1 to D3, whereas at D4, increasing Nrate exhibited a consistently positive effect. On the basis of bivariate regression analysis, the optimal combination was 93,000 plants hm−2 with 264 kg N hm−2, which could achieve a GY and a WP of 20.5 t hm−2 and 4.31 kg m−3, respectively, and reduce the yield gap from 72.0 % to 18.0 %. Overall, these findings show that prioritizing planting density and implementing density-specific nitrogen management are the pivotal strategies for closing the yield gap and achieving high resource use efficiency in drip-fertigated spring maize of Northwest China.
滴灌施肥技术与最佳种植密度（PD）和氮肥施用量（Nrate）管理相结合是缩小西北干旱区产量差距的重要策略。为了研究PD和Nrate对滴灌春玉米（Zea mays L.）作物生长、产量、水分生产力、辐射利用效率（RUE）和氮素利用效率（NUE）的影响，在河套灌区（HID）进行了为期3年的田间试验（2021-2023）。考虑了4种植物密度（D1: 60000株hm−2，D2: 75000株hm−2，D3: 90000株hm−2，D4: 105000株hm−2）和3种施氮量（N1: 200 kg hm−2,N2: 250 kg hm−2,N3: 300 kg hm−2）。单独的年度分析表明，PD是控制种群建立和资源利用的主要因素，其效应量大于Nrate及其相互作用。从D1到D3增加密度可显著提高株高（HVT）、叶面积指数（LAIVT）、种群水平地上干物质（DMP）和氮素吸收率（NutP），分别提高6.30 %、52.8 %、21.0 %和11.2 %，最终使GY提高28.9 %。D3N3的DMP和NutP最高，分别比其他组合高17.0 %和16.4 %，而D3N2的GY、WP和RUE最佳，分别比其他组合高14.5 %、16.5 %和10.2 %。然而，进一步增加D4诱导了负面影响，DMP、NutP、GY、WP和RUE分别降低了6.80 %、14.0 %、4.33 %、8.98 %和5.19 %，尽管NUE提高了11.2 %。线性混合模型也证实了密度的主导作用。虽然PD×Nrate相互作用无统计学意义，但Nrate效应随PD环境而变化。具体来说，N3在D1时抑制植物生长，限制HVT、LAIVT和DMP。在D1至D3密度范围内，适度的N2导致最佳的GY、WP和RUE，而在D4密度范围内，增加Nrate呈现出一致的正效应。双变量回归分析结果表明，最优组合为93000株hm - 2, 264 kg N hm - 2，可实现GY和WP分别为20.5 t hm - 2和4.31 kg m - 3，可将产量差距从72.0 %缩小到18.0 %。综上所述，优化种植密度和实施按密度施氮管理是缩小西北滴灌春玉米产量差距、实现资源高效利用的关键策略。
{"title":"Closing the yield gap of spring maize by synergizing drip nitrogen-fertigation with plant density in the arid region of Northwest China","authors":"Mengxuan Shao , Haijun Liu , Wenwen Ju","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110175","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110175","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Drip fertigation technology combined with optimal plant density (PD) and nitrogen application rate (Nrate) management is a critical strategy for closing the yield gap in arid regions of Northwest China. A three-year field experiment (2021–2023) was conducted in Hetao Irrigation District (HID) to determine the effects of PD and Nrate on crop growth, grain yield (GY), water productivity (WP), radiation use efficiency (RUE), and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of drip-fertigated spring maize (<em>Zea mays</em> L.). Four plant densities (D1: 60,000 plants hm<sup>−2</sup>, D2: 75,000 plants hm<sup>−2</sup>, D3: 90,000 plants hm<sup>−2</sup>, D4: 105,000 plants hm<sup>−2</sup>) and three N application rates (N1: 200 kg hm<sup>−2</sup>, N2: 250 kg hm<sup>−2</sup>, N3: 300 kg hm<sup>−2</sup>) were considered. Separate annual analyses indicated PD as the main factor governing population establishment and resource utilization, with a greater effect size than Nrate and their interaction. Increasing density from D1 to D3 significantly enhanced plant height (H<sub>VT</sub>), leaf area index (LAI<sub>VT</sub>), population-level aboveground dry matter (DM<sub>P</sub>), and nitrogen uptake (Nut<sub>P</sub>) by 6.30 %, 52.8 %, 21.0 %, and 11.2 %, respectively, ultimately rising GY by 28.9 %. The D3N3 achieved the highest DM<sub>P</sub> and Nut<sub>P</sub>, exceeding other combinations by 17.0 % and 16.4 %, while D3N2 resulted in optimal GY, WP, and RUE, exceeding other combinations by 14.5 %, 16.5 %, and 10.2 %. However, a further increase to D4 induced negative effects, reducing DM<sub>P</sub>, Nut<sub>P</sub>, GY, WP, and RUE by 6.80 %, 14.0 %, 4.33 %, 8.98 %, and 5.19 %, respectively, although NUE improved by 11.2 %. Linear mixed models also confirmed the dominant role of density. Although the PD×Nrate interaction was not statistically significant, the Nrate effect varied with PD environment. Specifically, N3 suppressed plant growth at D1, limiting H<sub>VT</sub>, LAI<sub>VT</sub>, and DM<sub>P</sub>. Moderate N2 resulted in optimal GY, WP, and RUE at densities from D1 to D3, whereas at D4, increasing Nrate exhibited a consistently positive effect. On the basis of bivariate regression analysis, the optimal combination was 93,000 plants hm<sup>−2</sup> with 264 kg N hm<sup>−2</sup>, which could achieve a GY and a WP of 20.5 t hm<sup>−2</sup> and 4.31 kg m<sup>−3</sup>, respectively, and reduce the yield gap from 72.0 % to 18.0 %. Overall, these findings show that prioritizing planting density and implementing density-specific nitrogen management are the pivotal strategies for closing the yield gap and achieving high resource use efficiency in drip-fertigated spring maize of Northwest China.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110175"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146047931","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-26DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110187
Lei Huang , Shuke Zheng , Mostafa Elshobary , Teng Li , Wei Liu , Xiangru Xu , Xinjuan Hu , Feifei Zhu , Mostafa El-Sheekh , Shuhao Huo
Saline-alkali soils are among the most challenging soil types in agricultural production owing to the intricate coupling relationships among water, salt, and nutrients. Precision irrigation offers a crucial means of enhancing water use efficiency, improving nutrient availability, and mitigating secondary salinization. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the research advancements in recent years on the integrated applications of precision irrigation monitoring technologies, intelligent control strategies, and terminal irrigation equipment in saline-alkali soil regions. Particular emphasis is placed on the construction and development trends of closed-loop precision irrigation systems. A "perception-decision-execution" ternary closed-loop regulation framework is proposed. The key mechanisms underlying its role in the coordinated regulation of water, salt, and phosphorus are explained in detail. Moreover, the coupling relationships between soil moisture, salinity, and phosphorus availability, along with the approaches for their coordinated regulation, are further explored. The potential of microbial fertilizers in promoting phosphorus activation and alleviating salt-alkali stress is also analyzed. The challenges faced include the absence of reliable models capable of capturing the dynamic phosphorus transformations under water-salt regulation, the lack of cost-effective real-time in-situ phosphorus monitoring tools, and issues related to equipment reliability. Additionally, the future development directions of an intelligent closed-loop irrigation system for the coordinated regulation of water, salt, and phosphorus are envisioned. This paper provides a theoretical reference and research foundation for the sustainable agricultural management of saline-alkali ecosystems.
{"title":"Advances and prospects of closed-loop precision irrigation for synergistic water-salt-phosphorus regulation in saline-alkali soils","authors":"Lei Huang , Shuke Zheng , Mostafa Elshobary , Teng Li , Wei Liu , Xiangru Xu , Xinjuan Hu , Feifei Zhu , Mostafa El-Sheekh , Shuhao Huo","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110187","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110187","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Saline-alkali soils are among the most challenging soil types in agricultural production owing to the intricate coupling relationships among water, salt, and nutrients. Precision irrigation offers a crucial means of enhancing water use efficiency, improving nutrient availability, and mitigating secondary salinization. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the research advancements in recent years on the integrated applications of precision irrigation monitoring technologies, intelligent control strategies, and terminal irrigation equipment in saline-alkali soil regions. Particular emphasis is placed on the construction and development trends of closed-loop precision irrigation systems. A \"perception-decision-execution\" ternary closed-loop regulation framework is proposed. The key mechanisms underlying its role in the coordinated regulation of water, salt, and phosphorus are explained in detail. Moreover, the coupling relationships between soil moisture, salinity, and phosphorus availability, along with the approaches for their coordinated regulation, are further explored. The potential of microbial fertilizers in promoting phosphorus activation and alleviating salt-alkali stress is also analyzed. The challenges faced include the absence of reliable models capable of capturing the dynamic phosphorus transformations under water-salt regulation, the lack of cost-effective real-time in-situ phosphorus monitoring tools, and issues related to equipment reliability. Additionally, the future development directions of an intelligent closed-loop irrigation system for the coordinated regulation of water, salt, and phosphorus are envisioned. This paper provides a theoretical reference and research foundation for the sustainable agricultural management of saline-alkali ecosystems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110187"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146047887","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-26DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110185
Jiangtao Wang , Gangfeng Du , Jingshan Tian , Chuangdao Jiang , Yali Zhang , Wangfeng Zhang
Mulched drip irrigation (MDI), a water-saving technology integrating surface plastic film mulching and drip irrigation, is widely adopted in cotton production to boost yield. However, its impacts on cotton root water uptake patterns, leaf photosynthetic physiology, water productivity (WP), and the relative contributions of agronomic (irrigation amount adjustment) and engineering (irrigation method improvement) water savings remain unclear. This study tested the hypothesis that MDI improves cotton WP by stabilizing shallow soil water supply to enhance leaf photosynthesis, and quantified the weights of these two water-saving types. A two-year field experiment in Xinjiang, China compared mulched drip irrigation (MDI) and traditional flood irrigation (TFI) at two irrigation volumes (390 and 600 mm). Key variables measured included 0–100 cm soil water content (SWC), leaf relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll content, photosynthetic rate (Pn), biomass, yield, and WP (defined as seed cotton yield per unit total water use); the entropy weight method quantified water-saving weights. Compared to TFI, MDI maintained stable 0–40 cm SWC and increased 0–60 cm SWC by 4.80–12.87 % during critical flowering-boll stages. This stability enhanced leaf RWC stability and chlorophyll content (11.43–26.38 % higher at prophase full boll stage), increasing average Pn by 5.95–12.04 %. DI-3 achieved the highest WP (13.35–14.10 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹) by reducing total water use by 8.14–15.46 % (vs. FI-3) while maximizing yield. DI-6 increased total water use by 28.58–29.76 % vs. DI-3, with excess water causing excessive vegetative growth and reduced WP. The achieved high water productivity depended on reducing the irrigation volume (contributing 57.44 % of the water saving), but was critically enabled by shifting to mulched drip irrigation (contributing 42.56 %), which efficiently transformed the saved water into enhanced yield. In conclusion, MDI at 390 mm improves cotton WP via stable shallow soil water and enhanced leaf physiology and photosynthesis. This study demonstrates that in arid regions, maximizing water productivity requires first optimizing the irrigation amount, and then adopting efficient irrigation methods to fully realize this potential.
膜下滴灌（MDI）是一种集地膜覆盖和滴灌于一体的节水技术，在棉花生产中被广泛采用，以提高产量。然而，其对棉花根系水分吸收模式、叶片光合生理、水分生产力（WP）的影响以及农艺（灌溉量调整）和工程（灌溉方式改进）节水的相对贡献尚不清楚。本研究验证了MDI通过稳定浅层土壤水分供应增强叶片光合作用来提高棉花WP的假设，并量化了这两种节水类型的权重。在中国新疆进行的一项为期两年的田间试验比较了覆盖滴灌（MDI）和传统漫灌（TFI）两种灌水量（390和600 mm）的差异。测量的关键变量包括0-100 cm土壤含水量（SWC）、叶片相对含水量（RWC）、叶绿素含量、光合速率（Pn）、生物量、产量和WP（定义为单位总用水量的种棉产量）；熵权法量化节水权重。与TFI相比，MDI在关键花铃期保持0 ~ 40 cm SWC稳定，并使0 ~ 60 cm SWC增加4.80 ~ 12.87 %。这种稳定性提高了叶片RWC稳定性和叶绿素含量（前期满铃期提高11.43 ~ 26.38 %），平均Pn提高5.95 ~ 12.04 %。DI-3通过减少8.14-15.46 %的总用水量（相对于FI-3），同时最大限度地提高产量，实现了最高的WP（13.35-14.10 kg ha⁻¹）。与DI-3相比，DI-6增加了28.58-29.76 %的总用水量，过量的水分导致营养生长过度和WP降低。节水主要依靠减少灌水量（节水贡献率为57.44 %），而膜下滴灌的节水贡献率为42.56 %，能有效地将节水转化为增产。综上所述，390 mm MDI通过稳定浅层土壤水分和增强叶片生理和光合作用提高棉花WP。研究表明，在干旱地区，要实现水分生产力最大化，首先需要优化灌溉量，然后采用高效的灌溉方式来充分发挥这一潜力。
{"title":"Mulched drip irrigation boosts cotton water productivity via shallow soil water regulation","authors":"Jiangtao Wang , Gangfeng Du , Jingshan Tian , Chuangdao Jiang , Yali Zhang , Wangfeng Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110185","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110185","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mulched drip irrigation (MDI), a water-saving technology integrating surface plastic film mulching and drip irrigation, is widely adopted in cotton production to boost yield. However, its impacts on cotton root water uptake patterns, leaf photosynthetic physiology, water productivity (<em>WP</em>), and the relative contributions of agronomic (irrigation amount adjustment) and engineering (irrigation method improvement) water savings remain unclear. This study tested the hypothesis that MDI improves cotton <em>WP</em> by stabilizing shallow soil water supply to enhance leaf photosynthesis, and quantified the weights of these two water-saving types. A two-year field experiment in Xinjiang, China compared mulched drip irrigation (MDI) and traditional flood irrigation (TFI) at two irrigation volumes (390 and 600 mm). Key variables measured included 0–100 cm soil water content (SWC), leaf relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll content, photosynthetic rate (<em>P</em><sub>n</sub>), biomass, yield, and <em>WP</em> (defined as seed cotton yield per unit total water use); the entropy weight method quantified water-saving weights. Compared to TFI, MDI maintained stable 0–40 cm SWC and increased 0–60 cm SWC by 4.80–12.87 % during critical flowering-boll stages. This stability enhanced leaf RWC stability and chlorophyll content (11.43–26.38 % higher at prophase full boll stage), increasing average <em>P</em><sub>n</sub> by 5.95–12.04 %. DI-3 achieved the highest <em>WP</em> (13.35–14.10 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹) by reducing total water use by 8.14–15.46 % (vs. FI-3) while maximizing yield. DI-6 increased total water use by 28.58–29.76 % vs. DI-3, with excess water causing excessive vegetative growth and reduced <em>WP</em>. The achieved high water productivity depended on reducing the irrigation volume (contributing 57.44 % of the water saving), but was critically enabled by shifting to mulched drip irrigation (contributing 42.56 %), which efficiently transformed the saved water into enhanced yield. In conclusion, MDI at 390 mm improves cotton <em>WP</em> via stable shallow soil water and enhanced leaf physiology and photosynthesis. This study demonstrates that in arid regions, maximizing water productivity requires first optimizing the irrigation amount, and then adopting efficient irrigation methods to fully realize this potential.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110185"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146047930","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-24DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110176
Hanaa Darouich , Tiago B. Ramos , Luís Santos Pereira
Orchards present challenges for water management due to their anisotropic and heterogeneous canopy geometries. Over the past decade, the expansion of intensive and super-intensive olive orchards worldwide, and particularly in the Alentejo region, southern Portugal, has underscored the need for clear guidelines to accurately estimate crop water requirements for profitable yield, water saving, and environmental adequateness of these complex systems. To address these issues, multiple scenarios were developed based on the characteristics of a typical irrigation district in the region, incorporating relevant factors such as crop density, soil type, climate demand, and water saving irrigation (WSI) strategies. The Allen and Pereira (2009) approach was used for computing the actual basal crop coefficient (Kcb) based on observations of the fraction of ground cover by vegetation (fc), plant height (h), and degree of stomatal adjustment (Fr). The SIMDualKc water balance model was then used to compute all terms of the daily soil water balance, i.e., actual crop evapotranspiration, percolation, and runoff. The results demonstrate how Kcb values respond to these various factors and highlight the significant water savings achievable through WSI strategies. Climate change projections for the region, where temperatures and rainfall were generated using eight different global circulation models, predict future increasing imbalances between water availability and demand. Considering present and future scenarios, these findings contribute to the development of effective coping strategies that contribute to the sustainability of intensive and super-intensive olive production systems.
{"title":"Towards sustainable water use in intensive and super-intensive olive orchards of Alentejo across multiple scenarios for present and future climate","authors":"Hanaa Darouich , Tiago B. Ramos , Luís Santos Pereira","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110176","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110176","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Orchards present challenges for water management due to their anisotropic and heterogeneous canopy geometries. Over the past decade, the expansion of intensive and super-intensive olive orchards worldwide, and particularly in the Alentejo region, southern Portugal, has underscored the need for clear guidelines to accurately estimate crop water requirements for profitable yield, water saving, and environmental adequateness of these complex systems. To address these issues, multiple scenarios were developed based on the characteristics of a typical irrigation district in the region, incorporating relevant factors such as crop density, soil type, climate demand, and water saving irrigation (WSI) strategies. The Allen and Pereira (2009) approach was used for computing the actual basal crop coefficient (K<sub>cb</sub>) based on observations of the fraction of ground cover by vegetation (f<sub>c</sub>), plant height (h), and degree of stomatal adjustment (F<sub>r</sub>). The SIMDualKc water balance model was then used to compute all terms of the daily soil water balance, i.e., actual crop evapotranspiration, percolation, and runoff. The results demonstrate how K<sub>cb</sub> values respond to these various factors and highlight the significant water savings achievable through WSI strategies. Climate change projections for the region, where temperatures and rainfall were generated using eight different global circulation models, predict future increasing imbalances between water availability and demand. Considering present and future scenarios, these findings contribute to the development of effective coping strategies that contribute to the sustainability of intensive and super-intensive olive production systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110176"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025211","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-24DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110189
Shudong Lin , Xiaole Zhao , Qiuping Fu , Zhenghu Ma , Yingjie Ma , Tingrui Yang
The sustainability of agricultural production systems is increasingly constrained by the trade-off between yield and quality, largely driven by declines in soil microbial diversity under conventional intensive management characterized by excessive synthetic fertilizer inputs. This study elucidates the synergistic mechanisms through which integrated low-rate inorganic-organic fertilization (IO1) alleviates this trade-off in pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) by regulating rhizosphere microbial communities. A hierarchical pathway model was developed to quantify the linkages among soil microbial diversity, crop growth dynamics, yield formation, and quality attributes. Compared with inorganic-only fertilization (I1), the IO1 treatment significantly enhanced bacterial Shannon diversity and Chao1 richness, which accelerated the average growth rates of plant height (0.736 cm/d) and leaf area index (0.121 cm2/(cm2·d)). As a result, pakchoi yield increased to 5.58 kg/m2, representing a 24.77 % improvement over I1. At the mechanistic level, improved microbial functional balance optimized nitrogen metabolic pathways, leading to substantial increases in soluble sugars (64.37 %), soluble proteins (39.21 %), and vitamin C content (82.04 %), while simultaneously reducing nitrate accumulation by 14.78 %. Mantel test results further revealed that bacterial communities primarily governed biomass accumulation through fresh weight dynamics (4.239 g/(plant·d)), whereas fungal communities played a key role in regulating photosynthate redistribution via organic matter catabolism, thereby establishing a "growth prioritization-quality compensation" dynamic equilibrium. Model predictions indicated that each unit increase in bacterial Shannon diversity corresponded to a 0.534 kg/m2 increase in yield, while each unit rise in the Pielou evenness index resulted in a 2.218 mg/g reduction in nitrate content. Overall, these findings provide a robust theoretical basis for microbial driven precision fertilization strategies aimed at enhancing yield, quality, and sustainability in vegetable production systems.
{"title":"Integrated organic-inorganic fertilization enhances soil microbial diversity and mitigates the yield-quality trade-off in pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.)","authors":"Shudong Lin , Xiaole Zhao , Qiuping Fu , Zhenghu Ma , Yingjie Ma , Tingrui Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110189","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110189","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The sustainability of agricultural production systems is increasingly constrained by the trade-off between yield and quality, largely driven by declines in soil microbial diversity under conventional intensive management characterized by excessive synthetic fertilizer inputs. This study elucidates the synergistic mechanisms through which integrated low-rate inorganic-organic fertilization (IO1) alleviates this trade-off in pakchoi (<em>Brassica chinensis L</em>.) by regulating rhizosphere microbial communities. A hierarchical pathway model was developed to quantify the linkages among soil microbial diversity, crop growth dynamics, yield formation, and quality attributes. Compared with inorganic-only fertilization (I1), the IO1 treatment significantly enhanced bacterial Shannon diversity and Chao1 richness, which accelerated the average growth rates of plant height (0.736 cm/d) and leaf area index (0.121 cm<sup>2</sup>/(cm<sup>2</sup>·d)). As a result, pakchoi yield increased to 5.58 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, representing a 24.77 % improvement over I1. At the mechanistic level, improved microbial functional balance optimized nitrogen metabolic pathways, leading to substantial increases in soluble sugars (64.37 %), soluble proteins (39.21 %), and vitamin C content (82.04 %), while simultaneously reducing nitrate accumulation by 14.78 %. Mantel test results further revealed that bacterial communities primarily governed biomass accumulation through fresh weight dynamics (4.239 g/(plant·d)), whereas fungal communities played a key role in regulating photosynthate redistribution via organic matter catabolism, thereby establishing a \"growth prioritization-quality compensation\" dynamic equilibrium. Model predictions indicated that each unit increase in bacterial Shannon diversity corresponded to a 0.534 kg/m<sup>2</sup> increase in yield, while each unit rise in the Pielou evenness index resulted in a 2.218 mg/g reduction in nitrate content. Overall, these findings provide a robust theoretical basis for microbial driven precision fertilization strategies aimed at enhancing yield, quality, and sustainability in vegetable production systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110189"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-24DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110184
Alice Mayer , Bianca Ortuani , Alberto Crema , Mirco Boschetti , Arianna Facchi
Maize is a key crop both globally and in Italy. In the Po Valley, it is cultivated on 500,000 ha, primarily for use in livestock production. Here, maize cultivation is highly dependent on irrigation, traditionally performed using border irrigation. However, due to increasing water scarcity, more efficient irrigation strategies will be required in the future. This study develops and tests an innovative integrated framework combining soil characterisation, in-field monitoring devices, agro-hydrological modelling and remote sensing to save water and energy. In 2021, a variable rate (VR) irrigation strategy was implemented in a 15-ha center pivot in a large livestock farm in northern Italy using: i) soil mapping based on an electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor to delineate homogeneous zones, ii) a modelling workflow coupling soil moisture probes and weather forecasts to determine irrigation timing and amounts, and iii) a speed-controlled pivot for spatially variable application. This approach reduced water and energy use by 20 %, while maintaining yield and reducing grain moisture at harvest, although operational constraints imposed by the tenant limited the achievable savings. The framework was then scaled up to the entire farm for the 2016–2021 period using a semi-distributed agro-hydrological model supported by remote sensing data. Simulations indicated a mean reduction of 19 % in irrigation and energy use, consistent with field results. Overall, the developed modelling framework proved to be effective in optimizing irrigation and can be transferred to other crop-growing areas relying on sprinkler systems.
{"title":"Water and energy savings using variable rate sprinkler irrigation on a large maize farm in northern Italy","authors":"Alice Mayer , Bianca Ortuani , Alberto Crema , Mirco Boschetti , Arianna Facchi","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110184","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110184","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Maize is a key crop both globally and in Italy. In the Po Valley, it is cultivated on 500,000 ha, primarily for use in livestock production. Here, maize cultivation is highly dependent on irrigation, traditionally performed using border irrigation. However, due to increasing water scarcity, more efficient irrigation strategies will be required in the future. This study develops and tests an innovative integrated framework combining soil characterisation, in-field monitoring devices, agro-hydrological modelling and remote sensing to save water and energy. In 2021, a variable rate (VR) irrigation strategy was implemented in a 15-ha center pivot in a large livestock farm in northern Italy using: i) soil mapping based on an electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor to delineate homogeneous zones, ii) a modelling workflow coupling soil moisture probes and weather forecasts to determine irrigation timing and amounts, and iii) a speed-controlled pivot for spatially variable application. This approach reduced water and energy use by 20 %, while maintaining yield and reducing grain moisture at harvest, although operational constraints imposed by the tenant limited the achievable savings. The framework was then scaled up to the entire farm for the 2016–2021 period using a semi-distributed agro-hydrological model supported by remote sensing data. Simulations indicated a mean reduction of 19 % in irrigation and energy use, consistent with field results. Overall, the developed modelling framework proved to be effective in optimizing irrigation and can be transferred to other crop-growing areas relying on sprinkler systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110184"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025213","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-23DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110128
Zhengguang Xu , Bo Jiang , Xiao Guo , Zhiyong Wu , Siqi Fan
Agricultural drought, typically triggered by meteorological drought, poses a significant threat to crop production and regional water resources. Understanding the propagation from meteorological to agricultural drought is therefore crucial for improving drought early warning and agricultural water management. In this study, we investigated event-scale drought propagation in the Yellow River Basin using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index and Standardized Soil Moisture Index to characterize meteorological and agricultural droughts, respectively. Variations in drought characteristics (duration and intensity) across the entire drought event and during its development, persistence, and recovery stages were analyzed based on matched drought events. We further identified the dominant drivers and constructed predictive models of propagation time using the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithm. The results indicate that agricultural droughts occur less frequently and with lower intensity but persist longer than meteorological droughts. Approximately 49.5 % of meteorological droughts propagate into agricultural droughts, with the one-to-one propagation type being dominant. Lengthening of duration and attenuation of intensity were observed during drought propagation across different drought stages. Initial soil moisture conditions emerged as the dominant driver of event-scale propagation time, followed by the timing of meteorological drought occurrence and its development duration. Based on the identified dominant influencing factors, a propagation time prediction model was constructed for each subregion using the XGBoost algorithm, enabling reliable prediction of propagation time. These findings underscore the critical role of initial soil moisture in regulating drought propagation, offering valuable insights for the development of agricultural drought early warning systems and the optimization of irrigation scheduling.
{"title":"Initial soil moisture conditions dominate variation in event-scale propagation time from meteorological to agricultural drought","authors":"Zhengguang Xu , Bo Jiang , Xiao Guo , Zhiyong Wu , Siqi Fan","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110128","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110128","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Agricultural drought, typically triggered by meteorological drought, poses a significant threat to crop production and regional water resources. Understanding the propagation from meteorological to agricultural drought is therefore crucial for improving drought early warning and agricultural water management. In this study, we investigated event-scale drought propagation in the Yellow River Basin using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index and Standardized Soil Moisture Index to characterize meteorological and agricultural droughts, respectively. Variations in drought characteristics (duration and intensity) across the entire drought event and during its development, persistence, and recovery stages were analyzed based on matched drought events. We further identified the dominant drivers and constructed predictive models of propagation time using the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithm. The results indicate that agricultural droughts occur less frequently and with lower intensity but persist longer than meteorological droughts. Approximately 49.5 % of meteorological droughts propagate into agricultural droughts, with the one-to-one propagation type being dominant. Lengthening of duration and attenuation of intensity were observed during drought propagation across different drought stages. Initial soil moisture conditions emerged as the dominant driver of event-scale propagation time, followed by the timing of meteorological drought occurrence and its development duration. Based on the identified dominant influencing factors, a propagation time prediction model was constructed for each subregion using the XGBoost algorithm, enabling reliable prediction of propagation time. These findings underscore the critical role of initial soil moisture in regulating drought propagation, offering valuable insights for the development of agricultural drought early warning systems and the optimization of irrigation scheduling.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110128"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025111","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-23DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110174
Yucui Bi , Fuxing Liu , Zishi Fu , Hongxia Qiao , Shanliang Liu , Junli Wang
Riparian zones play a crucial role in mitigating agricultural nitrogen (N) pollution. Biochar is considered a promising tool to remove N from agricultural soils; however, few studies have investigated N removal and its underlying mechanisms when riparian soils are amended with biochar. Biochar effectiveness differs depending on whether it is fresh or aged biochar. Previous studies mainly investigated artificial aging methods, such as chemical oxidation and freeze-thaw cycling. Very few examined biochar naturally aged in a greenhouse. In this study, N removal, the water parameters, soil properties, functional groups, and N-cycling microorganisms were determined after differently aged biochar (i.e., fresh (FBC), greenhouse-aged (GBC), and soil-aged biochar (SBC)) had been applied. The total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency increased in all the biochar treatments, with the highest increment found in the GBC treatment and the lowest in the SBC treatment. This was attributed to increased ammonium (NH4+-N) adsorption by the abundant oxygen-containing functional groups in GBC. Additionally, higher nitrite (NO2–-N) concentrations and an increased cation exchange capacity (CEC) following GBC application promoted the proliferation of microorganisms involved in ammonia oxidation, assimilatory nitrate reduction, and denitrification, thereby enhancing TN removal efficiency. Conversely, the lower DOC and NO2–-N levels, and the reduced CEC in SBC-amended soil constrained the growth of these microorganisms and decreased their contribution towards TN removal efficiency. These results improve understanding about FBC, GBC, and SBC effects on N removal in riparian zones and GBC could potentially be used to reduce the N pollution entering riparian zones.
{"title":"Greenhouse-aged biochar increases nitrogen removal in riparian soils: Disentangling abiotic and biotic controls","authors":"Yucui Bi , Fuxing Liu , Zishi Fu , Hongxia Qiao , Shanliang Liu , Junli Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110174","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110174","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Riparian zones play a crucial role in mitigating agricultural nitrogen (N) pollution. Biochar is considered a promising tool to remove N from agricultural soils; however, few studies have investigated N removal and its underlying mechanisms when riparian soils are amended with biochar. Biochar effectiveness differs depending on whether it is fresh or aged biochar. Previous studies mainly investigated artificial aging methods, such as chemical oxidation and freeze-thaw cycling. Very few examined biochar naturally aged in a greenhouse. In this study, N removal, the water parameters, soil properties, functional groups, and N-cycling microorganisms were determined after differently aged biochar (i.e., fresh (FBC), greenhouse-aged (GBC), and soil-aged biochar (SBC)) had been applied. The total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency increased in all the biochar treatments, with the highest increment found in the GBC treatment and the lowest in the SBC treatment. This was attributed to increased ammonium (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>-N) adsorption by the abundant oxygen-containing functional groups in GBC. Additionally, higher nitrite (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>–</sup>-N) concentrations and an increased cation exchange capacity (CEC) following GBC application promoted the proliferation of microorganisms involved in ammonia oxidation, assimilatory nitrate reduction, and denitrification, thereby enhancing TN removal efficiency. Conversely, the lower DOC and NO<sub>2</sub><sup>–</sup>-N levels, and the reduced CEC in SBC-amended soil constrained the growth of these microorganisms and decreased their contribution towards TN removal efficiency. These results improve understanding about FBC, GBC, and SBC effects on N removal in riparian zones and GBC could potentially be used to reduce the N pollution entering riparian zones.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110174"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025216","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-23DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110169
Juan An , Ruofei Liu , Huiling Yang , Lei Liu , Hongli Song , Lizhi Wang , Bin Wang
Extreme water erosion-induced nutrient loss poses a widespread environmental threat, contributing to land degradation and waterbody eutrophication. The increasing changes in extreme rainfall aggravate the complexity and uncertainties for nutrient loss, particularly when accompanied with agricultural tillage practice. However, field investigations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses along with the intensity gradient of extreme rainfall in agricultural system remain limited. To address this gap, this study examined the dynamics of N and P losses via runoff and sediment across an intensity gradient of extreme rainfall, categorized into four gradients: R50 (daily precipitation between 50 mm and the 90th percentile), P90 (90th–95th percentile), P95(95th–99th percentile) and P99 (>99th). Field observations were conducted over three years (2021–2023) using in-situ runoff plots of sweet potatoes (SP) and peanuts (PT) contour ridge systems. Results reveal that extreme rainfall contributed most significantly to nutrient loss, accounting for 56.71 %–64.77 % of total loss compared to ordinary rainfall. Nutrient loss associated with sediment exhibited greater sensitivity to extreme rainfall than those via runoff. Under extreme rainfall, nutrient loss was primarily driven by R50 events in SP and by P90 events in PT. Notably, R50 and P90 events contributed to over 60 % of nutrient loss, attributable to their greater precipitation and higher rainfall kinetic energy. Despite contributing only 6.71 % of total precipitation, the short-duration, high intensity P95 event accounted for 10.53 %–15.02 % of nutrient loss across all events. While, the long-duration, moderate-intensity P99 event exerted a comparatively limited effect on nutrient loss. Phosphorus loss exhibited 3.76–3.99 times higher sensitivity to extreme rainfall gradients than nitrogen loss, reaching a high-risk level. Structural equation modelling confirmed that sediment yield and extreme rainfall kinetic energy were the dominant factors driving nutrient loss, outweighing the effects of runoff and other extreme rainfall variables. These findings enhance the understanding of nutrient loss dynamics under extreme rainfall, and provide guidance for developing targeted conservation practices to mitigate agricultural non-point source pollution in watersheds facing increasing climate extremes.
{"title":"An intensity gradient of extreme rainfall governs nitrogen and phosphorus losses from contour ridge systems in the rocky mountain region of Northern China","authors":"Juan An , Ruofei Liu , Huiling Yang , Lei Liu , Hongli Song , Lizhi Wang , Bin Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110169","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2026.110169","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Extreme water erosion-induced nutrient loss poses a widespread environmental threat, contributing to land degradation and waterbody eutrophication. The increasing changes in extreme rainfall aggravate the complexity and uncertainties for nutrient loss, particularly when accompanied with agricultural tillage practice. However, field investigations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses along with the intensity gradient of extreme rainfall in agricultural system remain limited. To address this gap, this study examined the dynamics of N and P losses via runoff and sediment across an intensity gradient of extreme rainfall, categorized into four gradients: R50 (daily precipitation between 50 mm and the 90th percentile), P90 (90th–95th percentile), P95(95th–99th percentile) and P99 (>99th). Field observations were conducted over three years (2021–2023) using in-situ runoff plots of sweet potatoes (SP) and peanuts (PT) contour ridge systems. Results reveal that extreme rainfall contributed most significantly to nutrient loss, accounting for 56.71 %–64.77 % of total loss compared to ordinary rainfall. Nutrient loss associated with sediment exhibited greater sensitivity to extreme rainfall than those via runoff. Under extreme rainfall, nutrient loss was primarily driven by R50 events in SP and by P90 events in PT. Notably, R50 and P90 events contributed to over 60 % of nutrient loss, attributable to their greater precipitation and higher rainfall kinetic energy. Despite contributing only 6.71 % of total precipitation, the short-duration, high intensity P95 event accounted for 10.53 %–15.02 % of nutrient loss across all events. While, the long-duration, moderate-intensity P99 event exerted a comparatively limited effect on nutrient loss. Phosphorus loss exhibited 3.76–3.99 times higher sensitivity to extreme rainfall gradients than nitrogen loss, reaching a high-risk level. Structural equation modelling confirmed that sediment yield and extreme rainfall kinetic energy were the dominant factors driving nutrient loss, outweighing the effects of runoff and other extreme rainfall variables. These findings enhance the understanding of nutrient loss dynamics under extreme rainfall, and provide guidance for developing targeted conservation practices to mitigate agricultural non-point source pollution in watersheds facing increasing climate extremes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"325 ","pages":"Article 110169"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2026-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025112","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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