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Taste enhances the ability to express a preference for a congruent odor in rats. 味觉增强了大鼠表达对同类气味偏好的能力。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-09-19 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000605
Yuan J F Cai, Isabella B Allar, Joost X Maier

Foods that make up a typical diet are characterized by a rich set of sensory qualities that are perceived through multiple different modalities. It is well known that multisensory aspects of food are integrated to create our perception of flavor, which in turn affects our behavioral responses to food. However, the principles underlying multisensory integration of flavor-related sensory signals and how they inform perceptual judgments remain poorly understood, partly due to lack of control over flavor experience in human subjects. Here, we used rats as a model to overcome this limitation and tested the hypothesis that taste can enhance discriminability of retronasal odor cues. In a series of two-bottle tests, animals chose between two odorized solutions after learning to associate one of the odors with saccharin. When odors were highly similar, animals showed little preference for the saccharin-associated odor. When adding saccharin to both bottles-rendering one of the solutions' congruent-animals' preference for the saccharin-associated odor was significantly enhanced. No effect of taste was observed when using dissimilar odor pairs or novel taste stimuli. These findings suggest that congruent taste stimuli selectively enhance odor identity representations, aiding in the discriminability of perceptually similar flavors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

一般饮食中的食物都具有丰富的感官特性,这些感官特性可通过多种不同方式感知。众所周知,食物的多种感官综合在一起会形成我们对味道的感知,进而影响我们对食物的行为反应。然而,人们对风味相关感官信号的多感官整合原理以及它们如何影响知觉判断仍然知之甚少,部分原因是人类缺乏对风味体验的控制。在这里,我们以大鼠为模型来克服这一局限性,并检验了味觉能增强反鼻腔气味线索的可辨别性这一假设。在一系列双瓶测试中,动物在学会将其中一种气味与糖精联系起来后,会在两种气味溶液中做出选择。当气味高度相似时,动物对与糖精相关的气味几乎没有表现出偏好。当在两瓶溶液中都添加糖精时,动物对糖精相关气味的偏好明显增强。在使用不同气味对或新的味觉刺激时,没有观察到味觉的影响。这些研究结果表明,一致的味觉刺激会选择性地增强气味特征表征,从而帮助辨别知觉上相似的味道。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, 版权所有)。
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引用次数: 0
Modeling impaired insight after drug use in rodents. 啮齿动物吸毒后洞察力受损的模型。
IF 1.9 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000606
Marios Chris Panayi,Geoffrey Schoenbaum
Impaired insight in substance use disorder has been argued to reflect a global deficit in using cognitive models to mentally simulate possible future outcomes. The process of mentally simulating outcomes allows us to understand our beliefs about their causes, that is, to have insight and thereby avoid potentially negative outcomes. However, work in humans cannot address whether impaired insight and its neural/neurochemical sequalae are present prior to the development of a substance use disorder, a consequence of substance use, or a combination of both. This is because baseline measurements prior to drug use are not possible in humans. However, if these changes can be directly caused by drug use, then in animal models, a history of drug use should cause impairments in behavioral tasks designed to assess such inferences. Focusing on cocaine use, here we will review several lines of research from our laboratory that have tested this question using learning-theory tasks designed to isolate insight. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
有人认为,药物使用障碍患者的洞察力受损,反映了他们在使用认知模型对未来可能出现的结果进行心理模拟方面存在全面缺陷。心理模拟结果的过程使我们能够理解自己对其原因的信念,即洞察力,从而避免潜在的负面结果。然而,在人类身上进行的研究无法解决洞察力受损及其神经/神经化学后果是在药物使用障碍发生之前就已存在,还是药物使用的结果,或是两者兼而有之。这是因为在人类身上不可能进行药物使用前的基线测量。但是,如果这些变化是由药物使用直接引起的,那么在动物模型中,药物使用史应该会导致用于评估此类推断的行为任务出现障碍。在此,我们将以可卡因的使用为重点,回顾我们实验室利用旨在分离洞察力的学习理论任务对这一问题进行测试的几项研究。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA,保留所有权利)。
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引用次数: 0
Leveraging individual differences in cue-reward learning to investigate the psychological and neural basis of shared psychiatric symptomatology: The sign-tracker/goal-tracker model. 利用线索-奖赏学习的个体差异研究共同精神症状的心理和神经基础:标志追踪者/目标追踪者模型。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 Epub Date: 2024-05-16 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000590
Princess C Felix, Shelly B Flagel

In our modern environment, we are bombarded with stimuli or cues that exert significant influence over our actions. The extent to which such cues attain control over or disrupt goal-directed behavior is dependent on several factors, including one's inherent tendencies. Using a rodent model, we have shown that individuals vary in the value they place on stimuli associated with reward. Some individuals, termed "goal-trackers," primarily attribute predictive value to reward cues, whereas others, termed "sign-trackers," attribute predictive and incentive value. Thus, for sign-trackers, the reward cue is transformed into an incentive stimulus that is capable of eliciting maladaptive behaviors. The sign-tracker/goal-tracker animal model has allowed us to refine our understanding of behavioral and computational theories related to reward learning and to parse the underlying neural processes. Further, the neurobehavioral profile of sign-trackers is relevant to several psychiatric disorders, including substance use disorder, impulse control disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. This model, therefore, can advance our understanding of the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms that contribute to individual differences in vulnerability to psychopathology. Notably, initial attempts at translation-capturing individual variability in the propensity to sign-track in humans-have been promising and in line with what we have learned from the animal model. In this review, we highlight the pivotal role played by the sign-tracker/goal-tracker animal model in enriching our understanding of the psychological and neural basis of motivated behavior and psychiatric symptomatology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

在我们所处的现代环境中,各种刺激或暗示对我们的行为产生着巨大的影响。这些线索在多大程度上控制或干扰目标导向行为,取决于多种因素,包括一个人的内在倾向。我们利用啮齿动物模型证明,个体对与奖励相关的刺激物的重视程度各不相同。一些被称为 "目标追踪者 "的个体主要将预测价值赋予奖励线索,而另一些被称为 "标志追踪者 "的个体则将预测价值和激励价值赋予奖励线索。因此,对于 "标志追踪者 "来说,奖励线索被转化为一种激励刺激,能够诱发不适应行为。标志追踪者/目标追踪者动物模型使我们能够更好地理解与奖励学习相关的行为和计算理论,并解析其背后的神经过程。此外,信号追踪者的神经行为特征与多种精神疾病有关,包括药物使用障碍、冲动控制障碍、强迫症、注意力缺陷/多动障碍和创伤后应激障碍。因此,该模型可以促进我们对心理和神经生物学机制的理解,这些机制导致了个体在易患精神病理学方面的差异。值得注意的是,最初的转化尝试--捕捉人类签名追踪倾向的个体差异--是很有希望的,这与我们从动物模型中学到的知识是一致的。在这篇综述中,我们将重点介绍签名追踪者/目标追踪者动物模型在丰富我们对动机行为和精神症状的心理和神经基础的理解方面所发挥的关键作用。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA,保留所有权利)。
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引用次数: 0
Beyond reconsolidation: The need for a broad theoretical approach in clinical translations of research on retrieval-induced plasticity. 超越再巩固:在对检索诱导可塑性研究进行临床转化时,需要采用广泛的理论方法。
IF 1.9 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000602
K Matthew Lattal
Experimental findings showing that retrieved memories are labile and vulnerable to disruption have led to important theoretical ideas at a basic science level that have been applied to the clinic at a translational level. At a theoretical level, these findings suggest that retrieved memories can be modulated by behavioral or pharmacological treatments as they are reconsolidated and returned to storage. At a clinical level, these findings suggest that treatments that target reconsolidation may help dampen or even erase especially problematic memories, such as those associated with trauma. However, there are many caveats to these effects and issues that need to be considered when thinking broadly about retrieval-induced plasticity and extensions into the clinic. First, performance during a memory test often does not reflect the entirety of the animal's knowledge about a situation; asking questions in different ways may reveal the presence of a memory that was thought to be eliminated. Second, although reconsolidation and extinction are often treated as competing processes, there is abundant evidence that extinction can progress through associative and nonassociative changes in the original memory that are often described in terms of reconsolidation effects. Third, targeting a reconsolidation process as a therapeutic may not be helpful in disorders like posttraumatic stress disorder, in which traumatic experiences induce a cascade of symptoms that are self-perpetuating and may ultimately maintain themselves long after trauma. Underlying all of these challenges is the need for a rich theoretical framework focused on retrieval-induced plasticity that is informed by developments in associative learning theory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
实验结果表明,检索记忆是易变的,容易受到破坏,这在基础科学层面提出了重要的理论观点,并在转化层面应用于临床。在理论层面,这些研究结果表明,检索记忆在重新整合并返回存储时,可以通过行为或药物治疗进行调节。在临床层面,这些研究结果表明,针对重新整合的治疗可能有助于抑制甚至消除特别有问题的记忆,例如与创伤有关的记忆。然而,在广泛思考检索诱导的可塑性并将其扩展到临床时,这些效果和问题还有许多需要注意的地方。首先,在记忆测试中的表现往往不能反映动物对某一情境的全部认知;以不同的方式提问可能会发现存在被认为已经消除的记忆。其次,尽管再巩固和记忆消退通常被视为相互竞争的过程,但有大量证据表明,记忆消退可以通过原始记忆中的联想和非联想变化来进行,而这些变化通常被描述为再巩固效应。第三,以重新整合过程为治疗目标可能对创伤后应激障碍等疾病没有帮助,因为创伤后应激障碍会诱发一连串的症状,这些症状会自我延续,最终可能在创伤后很长时间内仍然存在。所有这些挑战的背后都需要一个丰富的理论框架,重点关注联想学习理论的发展所带来的检索诱导可塑性。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA,保留所有权利)。
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引用次数: 0
Biased choice and incentive salience: Implications for addiction. 偏差选择和激励突出:对成瘾的影响。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 Epub Date: 2024-05-23 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000583
Mike E Le Pelley, Poppy Watson, Reinout W Wiers

Before we can make any choice, we must gather information from the environment about what our options are. This information-gathering process is critically mediated by attention, and our attention is, in turn, shaped by our previous experiences with-and learning about-stimuli and their consequences. In this review, we highlight studies demonstrating a rapid and automatic influence of reward learning on attentional capture and argue that these findings provide a human analog of sign-tracking behavior observed in nonhuman animals-wherein signals of reward gain incentive salience and become attractive targets for attention (and overt behavior) in their own right. We then consider the implications of this idea for understanding the drivers of cue-controlled behavior, with focus on addiction as a case in which choices with regard to reward-related stimuli can become injurious to health. We argue that motivated behavior in general-and addiction in particular-can be understood within a "biased competition" framework: Different options and outcomes compete for attentional priority as a function of top-down goals, bottom-up salience, and prior experience, and the winner of this competition becomes the target for subsequent outcome-directed and flexible behavior. Finally, we outline the implications of the biased-competition framework for cognitive, behavioral, and socioeconomic interventions for addiction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

在做出任何选择之前,我们必须从环境中收集信息,了解我们有哪些选择。这一信息收集过程主要以注意力为中介,而我们的注意力反过来又受我们以前对刺激及其后果的经验和学习的影响。在这篇综述中,我们将重点介绍证明奖励学习对注意力捕捉具有快速和自动影响的研究,并认为这些研究结果提供了在非人类动物身上观察到的标志追踪行为的人类类比--在这种行为中,奖励信号会获得激励显著性,并以其自身的方式成为吸引注意力(和公开行为)的目标。然后,我们将探讨这一观点对理解线索控制行为驱动因素的影响,并重点关注成瘾这一案例,因为在这种情况下,与奖赏相关的刺激选择可能会损害健康。我们认为,可以在 "偏向竞争 "框架内理解一般动机行为,尤其是成瘾行为:在自上而下的目标、自下而上的显著性和先前经验的作用下,不同的选择和结果会争夺注意力的优先权。最后,我们概述了偏向竞争框架对认知、行为和社会经济干预成瘾的影响。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved)。
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引用次数: 0
Translational approaches to the neurobiological study of conditional discrimination and inhibition: Implications for psychiatric disease. 条件辨别和抑制神经生物学研究的转化方法:对精神疾病的影响。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 Epub Date: 2024-06-24 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000594
Susan Sangha, Jacklynn M Fitzgerald

There is a growing number of studies investigating discriminatory fear conditioning and conditioned inhibition of fear to assess safety learning, in addition to extinction of cued fear. Despite all of these paradigms resulting in a reduction in fear expression, there are nuanced differences among them, which could be mediated through distinct behavioral and neural mechanisms. These differences could impact how we approach potential treatment options in clinical disorders with dysregulated fear responses. The objective of this review is to give an overview of the conditional discrimination and inhibition findings reported in both animal models and human neuropsychiatric disorders. Both behavioral and neural findings are reviewed among human and rodent studies that include conditional fear discrimination via conditional stimuli with and without reinforcement (CS+ vs. CS-, respectively) and/or conditional inhibition of fear through assessment of the fear response to a compound CS-/CS+ cue versus CS+. There are several parallels across species in behavioral fear expression as well as neural circuits promoting fear reduction in response to a CS- and/or CS-/CS+ compound cue. Continued and increased efforts to compare similar behavioral fear inhibition paradigms across species are needed to make breakthrough advances in our understanding and treatment approaches to individuals with fear disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

越来越多的研究调查了辨别性恐惧条件反射和条件性恐惧抑制,以评估安全学习,以及提示性恐惧的消退。尽管所有这些范式都会导致恐惧表达的减少,但它们之间存在着细微的差异,这些差异可能是通过不同的行为和神经机制介导的。这些差异可能会影响我们如何在临床上治疗恐惧反应失调的疾病。本综述旨在概述在动物模型和人类神经精神疾病中报道的条件辨别和抑制结果。本文综述了人类和啮齿类动物的行为和神经研究结果,这些研究包括通过有强化和无强化的条件刺激(分别为 CS+ 和 CS-)进行的条件性恐惧辨别,以及/或通过评估对 CS-/CS+ 和 CS+ 复合线索的恐惧反应进行的条件性恐惧抑制。不同物种在行为恐惧表达以及神经回路方面存在若干相似之处,这些神经回路可促进对 CS- 和/或 CS-/CS+ 复合线索的恐惧反应的减少。我们需要继续加大力度比较不同物种间类似的行为恐惧抑制范式,以便在理解和治疗恐惧障碍患者方面取得突破性进展。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA,保留所有权利)。
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引用次数: 0
Resource-rational psychopathology. 资源理性精神病理学。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 Epub Date: 2024-05-16 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000600
Bilal A Bari, Samuel J Gershman

Psychopathology is vast and diverse. Across distinct disease states, individuals exhibit symptoms that appear counter to the standard view of rationality (expected utility maximization). We argue that some aspects of psychopathology can be described as resource-rational, reflecting a rational trade-off between reward and cognitive resources. We review work on two theories of this kind: rational inattention, where a capacity limit applies to perceptual channels, and policy compression, where the capacity limit applies to action channels. We show how these theories can parsimoniously explain many forms of psychopathology, including affective, primary psychotic, and neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as many effects of psychoactive medications on these disorders. While there are important disorder-specific differences and the theories are by no means universal, we argue that resource rationality offers a useful new perspective on psychopathology. By emphasizing the role of cognitive resource constraints, this approach offers a more inclusive picture of rationality. Some aspects of psychopathology may reflect rational trade-offs rather than the breakdown of rationality. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

精神病理学种类繁多。在各种不同的疾病状态中,个体表现出的症状似乎与标准的理性观点(预期效用最大化)背道而驰。我们认为,精神病理学的某些方面可以被描述为资源理性,反映了报酬与认知资源之间的理性权衡。我们回顾了两种此类理论的研究成果:理性注意力不集中理论和政策压缩理论,前者认为感知通道受到能力限制,而后者则认为行动通道受到能力限制。我们展示了这些理论如何能够合理地解释多种形式的精神病理学,包括情感障碍、原发性精神病和神经发育障碍,以及精神活性药物对这些障碍的许多影响。虽然这些理论与特定疾病存在重大差异,也绝非放之四海而皆准,但我们认为,资源合理性为精神病理学提供了一个有用的新视角。通过强调认知资源限制的作用,这种方法为理性提供了一个更具包容性的图景。精神病理学的某些方面可能反映了理性的权衡,而不是理性的崩溃。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved)。
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引用次数: 0
A psychological mechanism for the development of anxiety. 焦虑发展的心理机制
IF 1.9 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-08-01 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000607
Gonzalo P Urcelay
Although numerous behavioral constructs have been proposed to account for anxiety disorders, how these disorders develop within an individual has been difficult to predict. In this perspective, I selectively review clinical and experimental evidence suggesting that avoidance (i.e., safety) behavior increases beliefs of threat or fear. The experimental evidence has been replicated numerous times, with different parameters, and shows that when human participants emit avoidance responses in the presence of a neutral stimulus, they later show heightened expectations of threat in the presence of the neutral stimulus. I interpret these findings as resulting from prediction errors as anticipated by the Rescorla-Wagner model, although other animal learning theories can also predict the phenomenon. I discuss some implications and offer a few novel predictions. The analysis presented here sheds light on a phenomenon of theoretical and clinical relevance which is accommodated by basic associative learning theory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
尽管已经提出了许多行为建构来解释焦虑症,但这些焦虑症是如何在个体内部发展的却很难预测。在这一观点中,我有选择性地回顾了临床和实验证据,这些证据表明回避(即安全)行为会增加对威胁或恐惧的信念。这些实验证据已经用不同的参数重复了无数次,结果表明,当人类参与者在中性刺激面前做出回避反应时,他们随后会在中性刺激面前表现出更高的威胁预期。尽管其他动物学习理论也能预测这一现象,但我将这些发现解释为雷斯克拉-瓦格纳模型所预期的预测错误所致。我讨论了一些影响,并提出了一些新的预测。本文的分析揭示了一种具有理论和临床意义的现象,这种现象可以被基本的联想学习理论所包容。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, 版权所有)。
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引用次数: 0
Chronic stressor exposure impairs extinction of fear in adolescent rats and has associated effects on perineuronal nets and parvalbumin interneurons. 慢性压力暴露会损害青春期大鼠的恐惧消退能力,并对神经元周围网和副神经元产生相关影响。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000592
Elizabeth A Virakorn, Rick Richardson, Kathryn D Baker

Adolescents, both human and nonhuman, exhibit impairments in the extinction of learned fear, an effect that is exacerbated, at least in rodents, by exposure to chronic stress. However, we have little understanding of the mechanisms underlying this effect. Therefore, here, we examined whether corticosterone exposure, a model of chronic stress, alters the expression of inhibitory neurons expressing parvalbumin (PV) in the basolateral amygdala and prefrontal cortex, two brain regions that have been implicated in fear extinction memories, in adolescent rats. We also examined the expression of perineuronal nets (PNNs), extracellular matrix structures that encompass inhibitory interneurons, in these two regions. These structures might render fear memories resistant to extinction by applying a structural "brake" on the plasticity of fear memories. Corticosterone-exposed adolescent rats exhibited poor extinction retention, as in past work, and were also found to have reduced percentage of PV-positive cells surrounded by PNNs in the basolateral amygdala. PV cells and PNNs were unaffected by corticosterone exposure in the prefrontal cortex. Our results suggest that the altered function of amygdala interneurons may be associated with the impaired extinction performance in stress-exposed adolescent rats. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

青少年,无论是人类还是非人类,都会表现出学习性恐惧消退障碍,至少在啮齿类动物中,这种效应会因长期暴露于压力下而加剧。然而,我们对这种效应的机制了解甚少。因此,我们在此研究了皮质酮暴露(一种慢性应激模型)是否会改变青春期大鼠杏仁核基底外侧和前额叶皮层中表达副缬氨酸(PV)的抑制性神经元的表达。我们还研究了这两个区域中神经元周围网(PNNs)的表达,这是一种包含抑制性中间神经元的细胞外基质结构。这些结构可能会在结构上对恐惧记忆的可塑性 "刹车",从而使恐惧记忆难以消退。与过去的研究一样,暴露于皮质酮的青少年大鼠表现出很差的消退保持能力,而且还发现在杏仁核基底外侧,被 PNNs 包围的 PV 阳性细胞比例降低。前额叶皮层的 PV 细胞和 PNN 不受皮质酮暴露的影响。我们的研究结果表明,杏仁核中间神经元功能的改变可能与应激暴露的青春期大鼠消退能力受损有关。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, 版权所有)。
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引用次数: 0
Fear attenuation collaborations to optimize translation. 减弱恐惧合作,优化翻译。
IF 1.6 4区 医学 Q3 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-06-01 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000581
Marie-H Monfils, Hongjoo J Lee, Marissa Raskin, Yael Niv, Jason Shumake, Michael J Telch, Jasper A J Smits, Michael W Otto

Here, we describe the efforts we dedicated to the challenge of modifying entrenched emotionally laden memories. In recent years, through a number of collaborations and using a combination of behavioral, molecular, and computational approaches, we: (a) developed novel approaches to fear attenuation that engage mechanisms that differ from those engaged during extinction (Monfils), (b) examined whether our approaches can generalize to other reinforcers (Lee, Gonzales, Chaudhri, Cofresi, and Monfils), (c) derived principled explanations for the differential outcomes of our approaches (Niv, Gershman, Song, and Monfils), (d) developed better assessment metrics to evaluate outcome success (Shumake and Monfils), (e) identified biomarkers that can explain significant variance in our outcomes of interest (Shumake and Monfils), and (f) developed better basic research assays and translated efforts to the clinic (Smits, Telch, Otto, Shumake, and Monfils). We briefly highlight each of these milestones and conclude with final remarks and extracted principles. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

在此,我们将介绍我们为改变根深蒂固的情感记忆所做的努力。近年来,我们通过多项合作,并结合使用行为、分子和计算方法:(a)开发了新的恐惧衰减方法,这些方法采用的机制与消退过程中采用的机制不同(蒙菲尔斯);(b)研究了我们的方法是否可以推广到其他强化物(李、冈萨雷斯、乔德里、科夫雷西和蒙菲尔斯);(c)得出了我们的方法产生不同结果的原理性解释(尼夫、格什曼、宋和蒙菲尔斯);(d)研究了我们的方法是否可以推广到其他强化物(李、冈萨雷斯、乔德里、科夫雷西和蒙菲尔斯)、Song和Monfils),(d)开发出更好的评估指标来评价结果的成功与否(Shumake和Monfils),(e)确定了能够解释我们所关注的结果的显著差异的生物标志物(Shumake和Monfils),以及(f)开发出更好的基础研究测定方法并将其应用于临床(Smits、Telch、Otto、Shumake和Monfils)。我们将简要介绍其中的每一个里程碑,并以最后的评论和提炼出的原则作为结束语。(PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, 版权所有)。
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引用次数: 0
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Behavioral neuroscience
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