This study had four aims: (1) to group traditional mesophilous indicator species of Illyrian forests based on their distribution patterns; (2) to gain insight into the biogeographic attributes of each group by hotspot analyses; (3) to clarify the level of importance that certain species have in the floristic differentiation of Illyrian from non-Illyrian forests; (4) to explore the possible distribution of Illyrian mesophilous forests.
Europe, Asia and Africa.
Illyrian forest understory plant species.
A dataset of 40 understory plant species traditionally associated with Illyrian forests was compiled from the literature. The distribution of these species was digitised in the form of polygons, following numerous sources. A 25 × 25 km grid cell system was established to convert the polygon distribution data into a matrix. This matrix was used for hierarchical clustering in order to classify species based on distribution into groups. Hotspot analysis was performed for groups using Getis-Ord Gi* analysis. The dataset was further divided into clusters to reveal less pronounced distribution patterns.
The classification resulted in three major groups of species: (1) a Steno-Illyrian group, with a restricted hotspot area mostly distributed in Slovenia and Croatia; (2) a Sub-Illyrian group, with a larger distribution area but with a significant part of the distribution located in the Dinarides; and (3) a Pseudo-Illyrian group, which has a widespread distribution across Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia. Hotspot analysis identified the Dinarides as the main area of Illyrian understory plant diversity, with extensions into the Southern Alps and some Pannonian mountains and hills.
The area of the Dinarides and Southern Alps is characterised by the presence of Steno-Illyrian species and a high-frequency overlap with Sub-Illyrian species. Pseudo-Illyrian species lack biogeographic specificity and therefore cannot be used to identify Illyrian forests.
Studies on the geographical distributions of marine species have typically ignored the oceans' inherent 3D nature, instead focusing on two-dimensional patterns based on surface or near-surface abiotic conditions. Here, we show the importance of considering oceans as 3D space by comparing fish species richness patterns inferred from 2D and 3D data sources, including species occurrences and environmental data.
Atlantic Ocean.
Present.
Three orders of bony fishes—Beloniformes, Gadiformes and Scombriformes.
We generated 2D and 3D species distribution models using two methods: general linear models and simple envelopes. We then summed distributions for each order to map potential species richness in the Atlantic Ocean. Finally, we modelled species richness within each order to examine macroecological patterns based on 2D versus 3D data.
Our 3D species richness maps provide a different picture of potential distributions of diversity than 2D-based results, especially for Scombriformes and Gadiformes, which generally inhabit sub-surface waters. In contrast, 2D and 3D results for Beloniformes, which are generally epipelagic, were quite similar. Using linear models of species richness, we demonstrate disparity among macroecological patterns inferred based on 2D versus 3D data.
Overall, our work emphasises the critical importance of depth in the study of marine ecosystems and the need for detailed depth information associated with organism occurrence records and oceanographic data.
We aimed to understand the ecological connections between caves and mesovoid shallow substratum (MSS) in Iron Formations from southeastern Brazil.
Iron Quadrangle and Southern Espinhaço Range, southeastern Brazil.
Subterranean invertebrates.
Our dataset compiles species distribution data of subterranean invertebrates from long-term monitoring projects conducted in three localities: Brumadinho, Itabirito, and Conceição do Mato Dentro. Sampling occurred from April 2007 to December 2023 using active search methods in caves and MSS traps in iron-duricrust (canga) formations. We used multivariate analyses to compare the invertebrate composition between caves and MSS. We also assessed the effect of geographic distance between them on total β-diversity, species replacement, and richness differences.
We recorded 97,967 individuals and 1588 invertebrate morphospecies: 11,738 individuals and 994 morphospecies in caves, and 86,229 individuals and 945 morphospecies in MSS. Six phyla were sampled, with Arthropoda comprising 98% of all organisms. In total, 351 invertebrate morphospecies (22.1%) were shared between caves and MSS, with 643 (40.5%) sampled only in caves and 594 (37.4%) restricted to MSS. Only four subterranean-specialised invertebrates were shared between caves and MSS. Species composition differed more between subterranean environments than between localities, with β-diversity analyses revealing high species replacement as the primary driver. Geographic distance played a negligible role in compositional differences (Sorensen dissimilarity) between caves and MSS, with β-diversity always above 83% regardless of the distance between these environments.
Caves and MSS in Iron Formations support distinct subterranean invertebrate communities, with more species restricted to each environment than shared, regardless of the geographic distance or structural connectivity between them. These findings highlight the ecological relevance of both environments and their role in sustaining biodiversity within Iron Formation systems. Consequently, conserving both environments is needed to protect the full extent of subterranean biodiversity in these unique ecosystems.
Latitudinal diversity gradients are common across broad taxonomic groups, with most exhibiting peak species richness in the tropics. These have often been explained by greater primary productivity and diversification rates in the tropics. However, some taxa show peak species richness outside the tropics, providing valuable contrasts for improving our understanding of the factors driving latitudinal diversity gradients. In this study, we tested ecological and evolutionary predictors of latitudinal diversity in Procellariiform seabirds, which exhibit peak species richness at temperate Southern Hemisphere latitudes.
Global.
Paleogene to present.
Order Procellariformes (Seabirds).
We assessed the latitudinal diversity gradient for Procellariiformes in the context of ecological factors including ocean productivity, ocean area, wind speed, and number of coastlines for breeding. We simultaneously tested evolutionary factors comprising lineage ages and transition and diversification rates among latitudes.
While most ecological factors were retained in a Generalised Additive Model, wind appeared positively and most closely related to latitudinal breeding species richness. There was no evidence that unequal evolutionary transitions or diversification explained the latitudinal diversity gradient. However, an approximately two-fold earlier origin in the Southern Temperate zone likely provided more time for species accumulation there.
Wind and time since evolutionary origin best explain the extratropical peak in breeding species richness of Procellariiform seabirds, emphasising the importance of integrating ecological and evolutionary perspectives when investigating latitudinal diversity gradients. Additionally, our study also illustrates how quantification of species distributions and the choice of phylogeny when testing evolutionary predictors can influence interpretations of latitudinal diversity gradients.
This study investigates the evolutionary diversification and ecological significance of adhesive toepads in geckos. It examines how different toepad configurations (absent, basal, distal and fanlike) have evolved and relate to macroecological patterns. By analysing variation beyond mere presence or absence, it provides a finer-scale understanding of toepad evolution and its links to climate, habitat and biogeographic history.
Global.
Gekkota.
Toepad types were assigned based on species descriptions. An ultrametric phylogeny was pruned and calibrated for ancestral state reconstruction via stochastic character mapping. Species distribution, habitat and climate data were compiled from global databases and analysed in R. Species richness, habitat associations and climatic niche space were analysed in relation to toepad configuration.
Toepad configurations are unevenly distributed across gekkotans, with padlessness reconstructed as the ancestral and most common state. Transitions between configurations occurred frequently, including secondary pad loss. Geographic distributions and climatic niche space differ by pad type, with padless species occupying the broadest and most variable conditions. Habitat associations also vary among configurations, with forest being the dominant habitat category across all groups.
This study confirms padlessness as the ancestral condition and highlights multiple origins of adhesive toepads. While transitions from padless to basal pads are most frequent, transitions from distal to basal pads are also supported. Climatic niche analysis shows that toepads do not grant access to new climate zones but reflect fine-scale ecological adaptations, particularly to structurally complex habitats. Toepad configurations appear to facilitate ecological diversification within biomes. Geographic patterns seem more influenced by biogeographic history than direct climatic filtering, underscoring the role of historical contingency in shaping functional diversity.
Biodiversity shortfalls related to limited knowledge about geographic distribution (Wallacean) and species traits (Raunkiæran) are extremely common in many animal groups and perhaps more evident in invertebrate groups such as spiders. This lack of knowledge could present challenges for researchers investigating the response and effects of spiders along large spatial scales, particularly in the Global South. The aim of the SpiderATLAS is to facilitate research that links macroecology, biogeography, trait-based ecology and global change biology.
Brazilian Atlantic Forest, spanning virtually the entire eastern coastline of Brazil, encompassing 1,620,000 km2, 30 degrees of latitude (3° 42′ S to 33° 31′ S), and 22 degrees of longitude (34° 50′ W to 56° 45′ W).
Spiders (Class Araneae), including 1648 species from 63 families.
We compiled the spatial distribution (i.e., occurrence data) and data on morphological characteristics and derived traits for spider species from species descriptions, taxonomic revisions and personal collection. Species occurrences were extracted from several data sources spanning from the 1880s to 2023. Data on the morphological traits of species were compiled from taxonomic and diversity inventory papers published between 1833 and 2024.
We provide 9369 georeferenced point locations and six morphological traits (body length, prosoma length, prosoma width, prosoma height, femur I length, and patella I length) for 1648 spider species. Most data are available for females and males. The dataset and code are available to download from Dryad, World Spider Trait database, and the ZooTraits app.
The SpiderATLAS can be useful to access information on the distribution and traits of spiders, contributing to the development of macroecological, biogeographical and trait-based ecology. This dataset can also facilitate the biodiversity conservation of one of the most abundant and important arthropod predators on the planet, in a biodiversity hotspot.
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