Performance enhancement and health最新文献

The effect of sleep quantity and quality on exercise and academic performance, autonomic function, wellness and cognition in youth athletes 睡眠时间和质量对青少年运动员运动和学业成绩、自主神经功能、健康和认知的影响

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-30 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2026.100417

Melissa Skein, Tegan E Hartmann

Purpose

The aim was to examine the effect of sleep restriction, fragmentation, and extension on athletic and academic performance, cognition, autonomic function, and mood of youth athletes.

Methods

Sixteen pre-elite youth athletes completed four sleep experimental trials in a randomised-control design. Each trial included sleep restriction to 4 h (RES), sleep fragmentation by periodic waking throughout the night (FRAG), sleep extension to 10 h (EXT), or control/normal night sleep (CONT). The following day, testing included resting heart rate variability (HRV); exercise tests, Stroop task, and mood and wellness questionnaires.

Results

Time domain HRV data indicate no differences between conditions (P = 0.126 – 0.945, d = 0.11 – 0.67), while frequency domain indices indicate resting very low frequency (VLF) % contribution higher in RES compared to CONT and RES (P = 0.05, d = 0.86 – 0.96). Stroop reaction times were slower and accuracy lower in FRAG (P = 0.001–0.009; d = 1.90 – 2.55), while maths results were not different between conditions (P = 0.91; d = 0.13 – 0.58). There were no differences between conditions for sprint times, agility times, and vertical jump height (P = 0.38–0.98; d = 0.02 – 0.35). Throwing reaction task accuracy was lower in FRAG compared to CONT and RES (P = 0.006–0.05; d = 0.8) with moderate to large effects noted for throwing duration (d = 0.43 – 1.21). Scores for ‘positive’ feelings were lower (P = 0.02 - 0.001; d = 0.51 – 0.99) and ‘negative’ feelings were increased for RES and FRAG compared to CONT (P = 0.003–0.08; d = 1.01 – 1.84). Perceived wellness was lower for RES compared to CONT (P = 0.016 – 0.0001; d = 0.9 – 2.34).

Discussion

Sleep fragmentation and restriction had no significant effects on anaerobic exercise performance or academic tests, but significant decrements were evident in mood states, autonomic regulation, and accuracy during complex cognition tasks.

目的探讨睡眠限制、断裂和延长对青少年运动员运动成绩、学业成绩、认知、自主神经功能和情绪的影响。方法采用随机对照设计，对16名优秀前青少年运动员进行4项睡眠实验。每个试验包括睡眠限制至4小时（RES），夜间周期性醒来的睡眠碎片（FRAG），睡眠延长至10小时（EXT）或对照/正常夜间睡眠（CONT）。第二天，测试包括静息心率变异性（HRV）；运动测试，Stroop任务，以及情绪和健康问卷。结果时域HRV数据显示两组间无差异（P = 0.126 ~ 0.945, d = 0.11 ~ 0.67），频域指标显示静息极低频（VLF） %对RES的贡献高于CONT和RES （P = 0.05, d = 0.86 ~ 0.96）。frg组的Stroop反应时间较慢，准确性较低（P = 0.001-0.009; d = 1.90 - 2.55），而数学成绩在不同条件下没有差异（P = 0.91; d = 0.13 - 0.58）。短跑次数、敏捷次数和垂直起跳高度在不同条件下无显著差异（P = 0.38 ~ 0.98; d = 0.02 ~ 0.35）。与CONT和RES相比，FRAG的投掷反应任务准确性较低（P = 0.006-0.05; d = 0.8），投掷持续时间的影响中等至较大（d = 0.43 - 1.21）。与对照组相比，RES和FRAG的“积极”感受得分较低（P = 0.02 - 0.001; d = 0.51 - 0.99），“消极”感受得分较高（P = 0.003-0.08; d = 1.01 - 1.84）。与对照组相比，RES组的感知健康水平较低（P = 0.016 - 0.0001; d = 0.9 - 2.34）。睡眠分裂和限制对无氧运动表现或学术测试没有显著影响，但在情绪状态、自主调节和复杂认知任务的准确性方面有明显的下降。

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引用次数: 0

‘In the fatigue phase, I am simply fighting for survival’: A qualitative interview study on fatigue in competitive bodybuilding “在疲劳阶段，我只是在为生存而战”：一项关于竞技健美运动员疲劳的定性访谈研究

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100407

V.T.M. Nguyen , A.J. Esser-Seraphin , T.J. Lalgi , S. Geiger , G. Paslakis , T. Muehlbauer , M. Teufel , A. Bäuerle

Fatigue symptoms in elite athletes are receiving increasing attention within the literature. In bodybuilding, extended dieting phases are essential for competition preparation. As a sport driven by aesthetic and weight-sensitive goals, bodybuilding also carries a heightened risk of fatigue. Previous research has predominantly focused on the physical aspects of fatigue, with comparatively limited attention given to its psychological dimensions. This study aimed to explore the subjective experience of fatigue symptoms in competitive bodybuilders using a qualitative research approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 German-speaking competitive bodybuilders (9 women, M_age = 28 years, SD = 4.63) focusing on their experiences of fatigue. Three independent researchers collaboratively conducted the data analysis, using reflexive thematic analysis with a mainly inductive approach informed by existing theoretical concepts. All bodybuilders experienced psychological and somatic fatigue symptoms. Fatigue was shaped by the relationship between sport-specific demands and embodiment, the prioritisation of performance over health, individual vulnerability (e.g. performance-oriented personality), and protective factors (e.g. health literacy, positive body image). The findings highlight novel risk factors, such as the habituation to fatigue, as well as protective elements, including effective recovery strategies, fatigue-related interoception and a generally positive attitude towards potential interventions. Our study provides the foundation for developing targeted psychological interventions pre- and post-competition, contributing to improved health outcomes.

优秀运动员的疲劳症状在文献中受到越来越多的关注。在健美运动中，延长节食阶段对比赛准备是必不可少的。作为一项以审美和体重为目标的运动，健身也有很高的疲劳风险。以前的研究主要集中在疲劳的生理方面，而对其心理方面的关注相对有限。本研究旨在运用质性研究方法，探讨竞技健美运动员疲劳症状的主观体验。对15名讲德语的竞技健美运动员（9名女性，年龄28岁，SD = 4.63）进行了半结构化访谈，重点关注他们的疲劳经历。三位独立研究人员合作进行了数据分析，使用反身性主题分析，主要采用归纳方法，并根据现有理论概念进行分析。所有的健美运动员都经历了心理和身体疲劳症状。疲劳是由特定运动要求与体现、表现优先于健康、个人脆弱性（如表现导向型人格）和保护因素（如健康素养、积极的身体形象）之间的关系形成的。研究结果强调了新的风险因素，如对疲劳的习惯，以及保护因素，包括有效的恢复策略，疲劳相关的内感受和对潜在干预措施的普遍积极态度。我们的研究为制定有针对性的赛前和赛后心理干预提供了基础，有助于改善健康结果。

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引用次数: 0

Implicit power motive, affect, and gross-motor skill learning in a contest scenario 竞赛情境下的内隐权力动机、情感与大动作技能学习

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100410

Simon Steib , Sinja Rettig-Hiebsch , Hanna Schöttner , Alisa Gabduliyanova , Florence Theil , Philipp Wanner , Martin G. Köllner

The importance of socio-cognitive-affective factors in motor skill learning has received increasing attention over the past two decades. In line with theoretical frameworks, previous studies in sports contexts have demonstrated that positive affect facilitates motor skill acquisition. However, there is a paucity of research regarding the factors that influence affective responses during motor practice. Implicit motives have emerged as a potential factor, with evidence linking motive-congruent environments to enhanced learning outcomes – though mainly in artificial laboratory settings using simple tasks. Here, we examine the associations between implicit motives, affective and hormonal responses, and motor learning in a competitive context by means of an ecologically valid, whole-body balance task. For this, 138 healthy adults participated in a fictitious one-on-one competition to practice a novel balancing task. We found that winning or losing did not directly affect task performance or learning, but that individuals' affective responses to the competition were associated with learning outcome. As expected, positive valence predicted better motor learning, which was primarily driven by participants who won the competition. Contrary to our hypotheses, the implicit power motive as well as testosterone and estradiol responses did not predict learning outcomes, and interactions between power motive and affective responses showed only a weak trend. Notably, female participants showed stronger responses to competition, highlighting the need to systematically consider biological sex in future research. Our findings highlight the importance of positive affect in motor skill learning and extend previous work to gross motor tasks practiced under competitive conditions.

在过去的二十年里，社会认知情感因素在运动技能学习中的重要性受到了越来越多的关注。与理论框架一致，先前在运动背景下的研究表明，积极情绪有助于运动技能的习得。然而，关于运动练习中影响情感反应的因素的研究却很少。内隐动机已经成为一个潜在的因素，有证据表明，动机一致的环境与提高学习效果有关——尽管主要是在使用简单任务的人工实验室环境中。在这里，我们通过生态有效的全身平衡任务，研究了竞争环境下内隐动机、情感和激素反应与运动学习之间的联系。为此，138名健康成年人参加了一场虚构的一对一比赛，练习一种新颖的平衡任务。我们发现，输赢并不直接影响任务表现或学习，但个体对竞争的情感反应与学习结果有关。正如预期的那样，积极效价预示着更好的运动学习，这主要是由赢得比赛的参与者推动的。与我们的假设相反，内隐权力动机以及睾丸激素和雌二醇反应不能预测学习结果，权力动机和情感反应之间的相互作用仅表现出微弱的趋势。值得注意的是，女性参与者对竞争表现出更强的反应，这突出了在未来的研究中系统地考虑生理性别的必要性。我们的研究结果强调了积极影响在运动技能学习中的重要性，并将之前的研究扩展到在竞争条件下练习的大肌肉运动任务。

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引用次数: 0

Mapping doping-related criminal legislation together: An informed stakeholder consultation 与兴奋剂相关的刑事立法：知情的利益相关者咨询

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2026.100413

Isaac Lockett , Jan Exner , Elizabeth Pummell , Andrea Petróczi

Access to reliable, jurisdiction-specific information on the existence and scope of doping-related criminal legislation is essential for understanding how anti-doping policies are interpreted and enforced globally. While the globally adopted World Anti-Doping Code provides a private regulatory framework for sporting sanctions, governments have introduced doping-related criminal laws that vary in scope, legal form, and underlying rationale. In the absence of a centralised legal resource, navigating this policy space becomes complex and challenging. This study addresses this gap by combining desk research with a multilingual, semi-structured informed stakeholder consultation to map the presence and scope of doping-related criminal legislation, identifying at least thirty-seven jurisdictions that have criminalised doping-related behaviours and enabling the development of five legislative typologies: comprehensive, trafficking-focused, child protection, context-specific, and fraud-based models. These typologies reveal variations in the behaviours targeted, definitions employed, and penalties applied. Such divergences raise important questions about the coherence of global anti-doping efforts, particularly regarding the definition of doping and the interaction between public and private sanctioning. This study also demonstrates the potential viability of a distributed, multi-actor approach to legal data gathering and supports the development of a dynamic, centralised legal database to advance transparency, equity, and evidence-informed anti-doping governance.

获取与兴奋剂有关的刑事立法的存在和范围的可靠的、特定司法管辖区的信息，对于了解反兴奋剂政策在全球范围内是如何解释和执行的至关重要。虽然全球采用的《世界反兴奋剂条例》为体育制裁提供了一个私人监管框架，但各国政府已经出台了与兴奋剂有关的刑法，其范围、法律形式和基本原理各不相同。在缺乏集中法律资源的情况下，驾驭这一政策空间变得复杂而具有挑战性。本研究通过将案头研究与多语言、半结构化的知情利益相关者咨询相结合，解决了这一差距，绘制了与兴奋剂有关的刑事立法的存在和范围，确定了至少37个将兴奋剂相关行为定为刑事犯罪的司法管辖区，并推动了五种立法类型的发展：全面、以贩运为重点、儿童保护、具体情况和基于欺诈的模式。这些类型揭示了目标行为、所使用的定义和所应用的惩罚的变化。这种分歧对全球反兴奋剂工作的一致性提出了重要问题，特别是在兴奋剂的定义以及公共和私人制裁之间的相互作用方面。本研究还展示了分布式、多参与者法律数据收集方法的潜在可行性，并支持动态、集中式法律数据库的开发，以提高透明度、公平性和循证反兴奋剂治理。

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引用次数: 0

Talking dirty: Anti-doping’s stigmatizing rhetoric and its impact on the unintentional doper 说脏话：反兴奋剂的污名化言论及其对无意服用兴奋剂者的影响

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100412

Harry Grimes , Luke Thomas Joseph Cox

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is the principal body responsible for leading global efforts to address the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) in sport. Central to WADA’s strategic approach has been the framing of PED use as a form of cheating, a morally deviant behaviour that undermines the integrity of competition. This moralised discourse constructs doping not merely as a regulatory infraction but as an ethical transgression, reinforcing a dichotomy between “clean” and “dirty” athletes. As a result, athletes who are found to have violated anti-doping rules are often subject to public condemnation, exclusion, and reputational damage, phenomena that amount to public shaming. Drawing upon Erving Goffman’s (1963) seminal sociological work on stigma, this paper critically examines the harmful consequences of this prevailing narrative, particularly for athletes who unintentionally consume banned substances. These individuals, whose infractions may arise from contaminated supplements, mislabelled medications, or inadvertent exposure, are nonetheless subjected to similar treatment as those who engage in deliberate PED use. By failing to account for the complexity and nuance of such cases, the dominant moral framing perpetuates stigma and exacerbates harm. By highlighting these issues, we call for greater awareness and reflection on doping stigma and the language we use to discuss doping.

世界反兴奋剂机构（WADA）是负责领导全球努力解决在体育运动中使用提高成绩药物（ped）的主要机构。世界反兴奋剂机构战略方针的核心是将使用兴奋剂定性为一种作弊行为，一种破坏竞争诚信的道德偏差行为。这种道德化的话语不仅将兴奋剂视为一种监管违规行为，还将其视为一种道德违规，强化了“干净”和“肮脏”运动员之间的二分法。因此，被发现违反反兴奋剂规则的运动员往往会受到公众的谴责、排斥和名誉损害，这种现象相当于公开羞辱。借鉴欧文·戈夫曼（1963）关于耻辱的开创性社会学工作，本文批判性地审视了这种流行叙事的有害后果，特别是对于无意中服用违禁药物的运动员。这些人的违规行为可能来自受污染的补充剂、贴错标签的药物或无意接触，但他们受到的治疗与故意使用PED的人类似。由于未能解释此类案件的复杂性和细微差别，占主导地位的道德框架使耻辱永久化并加剧了伤害。通过强调这些问题，我们呼吁提高对兴奋剂耻辱的认识和反思，以及我们用来讨论兴奋剂的语言。

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引用次数: 0

Unveiling the path to exercise dependence: An Explanatory model on the dark triad personality traits and motivation 揭示运动依赖的路径：黑暗三联人格特质与动机的解释模型

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100405

Ashrene Rathilal , Rudolph Leon van Niekerk , Jahvaid Hammujuddy

Exercise dependence (ED) emerges when engagement in exercise becomes excessive, manifesting as a harmful behavioural dependency with adverse health consequences. This study aimed to develop a model explaining the interplay between Dark Triad personality traits, motivational orientations, and demographic factors in predicting ED. Data were collected from 486 South African university students using the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised (EDS-R), the Short Dark Triad Questionnaire (SD3), and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ). Bootstrapped path analysis was applied to assess direct and indirect relationships. The findings revealed that ego orientation mediated the relationship between Dark Triad traits and ED, while age showed a small but significant positive association with ED. These results highlight the role of personality and motivational factors, alongside individual characteristics, in shaping vulnerability to maladaptive exercise. Interventions should therefore target ego-oriented motives and personality-driven behaviours to promote balanced, sustainable exercise engagement.

当运动过度时，运动依赖（ED）就会出现，表现为一种有害的行为依赖，对健康产生不利影响。本研究利用运动依赖量表（EDS-R）、短黑暗人格特质问卷（SD3）和运动任务与自我取向问卷（TEOSQ）收集了486名南非大学生的数据，旨在建立一个解释黑暗人格特质、动机取向和人口统计学因素在预测ED中的相互作用的模型。自举路径分析用于评估直接和间接关系。研究结果显示，自我取向介导了黑暗三联征特征与ED之间的关系，而年龄与ED之间存在虽小但显著的正相关。这些结果强调了人格和动机因素以及个体特征在形成对适应性不良运动的脆弱性方面的作用。因此，干预措施应该针对自我导向的动机和个性驱动的行为，以促进平衡、可持续的锻炼参与。

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引用次数: 0

Clarification regarding doping rates in the article by Nauright, Ratcliff & Zipp (2025) 在Nauright， Ratcliff & Zipp（2025）的文章中关于兴奋剂率的澄清

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2026.100415

Rolf Ulrich , Léa Cléret , Gen Kanayama , Perikles Simon , Harrison G. Pope Jr.

引用次数: 0

A multimodal, theory-based prevention program for IPED use in recreational fitness: evidence from a German cluster-randomized study 休闲健身中使用IPED的多模式、基于理论的预防方案：来自德国集群随机研究的证据

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100406

René Paasch , Gunnar Mau , Oliver Korol

Objectives

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a multimodal, theory-based intervention in reducing image and performance enhancing drug (IPED) use and improving psychological determinants among recreational fitness participants.

Design

A cluster-randomized longitudinal trial was conducted in four German fitness studios.

Methods

A total of 250 participants were allocated to an experimental group (n = 115) and a control group (n = 135). Assessments were conducted at baseline (T1), during the intervention (T2–T3), and at follow-up (T4) and at follow-up (T4; 4 weeks post-intervention) The program combined motivational enhancement, psychoeducation, choice architecture, and harm reduction, guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Health Belief Model (HBM), Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), Prototype Willingness Model (PWT), and nudging principles (MINDSPACE). Reliability (Cronbach’s α), mixed-model analyses (T1–T3), and logistic regression (T4) were applied.

Results

All scales demonstrated good to excellent reliability (α = 0.74–.89). Significant Group × Time effects (T1–T3) were found for intention, perceived control, risk perception, fear, protection motivation, and nudging perception, with greater improvements in the experimental group. At T4, booster use was 53.0% in the experimental group compared to 69.6% in controls (absolute risk reduction = 16.6 percentage points; relative risk = 0.76; number needed to treat ≈ 6). Logistic regression confirmed group allocation as the only significant predictor of booster use (OR = 0.47, 95% CI [0.28, 0.80], p = .005), independent of age, gender, and baseline use. No attrition occurred.

Conclusion

A multimodal, theory-based intervention improved psychological determinants and reduced IPED use in recreational fitness. Positioning TPB as the core model, complemented by HBM, EPPM, PWT, and nudging, underscores the value of integrated prevention and harm reduction strategies in real-world fitness settings.

目的：本研究评估了一种多模式、基于理论的干预方法在减少娱乐健身参与者使用图像和性能增强药物（IPED）和改善心理决定因素方面的有效性。DesignA集群随机纵向试验在四家德国健身工作室进行。方法250例受试者随机分为实验组（n = 115）和对照组（n = 135）。评估在基线（T1）、干预期间（T2-T3）、随访（T4）和随访（T4；干预后4周）进行。该项目以计划行为理论（TPB）、健康信念模型（HBM）、扩展平行过程模型（epppm）、原型意愿模型（PWT）和轻推原则（MINDSPACE）为指导，结合动机增强、心理教育、选择架构和减少伤害。采用信度（Cronbach’s α）、混合模型分析（T1-T3）和逻辑回归（T4）。结果各量表的信度均为良至优（α = 0.74 ~ 0.89）。在意向、控制知觉、风险知觉、恐惧、保护动机和轻推知觉方面存在显著的组×时间效应（T1-T3），实验组的改善更大。T4时，实验组增强剂使用率为53.0%，对照组为69.6%（绝对风险降低= 16.6个百分点；相对风险= 0.76；需要治疗的人数≈6）。Logistic回归证实，分组分配是唯一显著预测增强剂使用的因素（OR = 0.47, 95% CI [0.28, 0.80], p = 0.005），与年龄、性别和基线使用无关。没有发生磨损。结论基于理论的多模式干预改善了休闲健身的心理决定因素，减少了IPED的使用。将TPB定位为核心模式，辅以HBM、epppm、PWT和助推，强调了在现实世界的健身环境中，综合预防和减少危害策略的价值。

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引用次数: 0

Corrigendum to “Beyond scapegoats: Doping and the myth of the level playing field” [Performance Enhancement & Health 13 (2025) 100376] “超越替罪羊：兴奋剂和公平竞争环境的神话”[成绩提高与健康13(2025)100376]的勘误表

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2026.100414

John Nauright , Lizzy Ratcliff , Sarah Zipp

引用次数: 0

The influence of parental and coach pressure on competitive state anxiety: The mediating role of emotional intelligence 父母压力和教练压力对竞争状态焦虑的影响：情绪智力的中介作用

IF 3.7 Q2 HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT & TOURISM

Performance enhancement and health

Pub Date : 2026-01-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100408

Jon Berastegui-Martínez , Josu Barrenetxea-García , José M. Tomás , Igor Esnaola

Competitive state anxiety is one of the most extensively researched topics in sport psychology due to its crucial role in determining athletes’ performance and well-being. Therefore, it seems relevant to identify factors that influence adolescent athletes’ anxiety especially in sports where scientific literature is scarce, such as water polo. This study examines the relationship between parental and coach pressure for perfectionism, players’ emotional intelligence and their competitive state anxiety. The sample comprised 304 water polo players (males = 209, females = 94, other = 1) from Spain, aged between 12 and 18 years (M_age = 14.10 ± 1.58 years). Two a priori models (full and partial mediation) were estimated and the best-fitting model was later analyzed for gender invariance. Results showed that the partially mediated model fit the data well and was invariant across genders. Coach pressure negatively predicted emotional intelligence and positively predicted cognitive and somatic anxiety. Additionally, there was a negative and significant indirect effect from coach pressure to self-confidence; that is, emotional intelligence plays a mediating role between coach pressure and self-confidence. On the other hand, parental pressure had a direct effect on somatic anxiety and emotional intelligence directly predicted self-confidence. The study highlights the importance of considering both environmental factors and individual psychological characteristics when addressing competitive state anxiety. Future research and interventions should focus on coach and parent-education programs, as well as developing emotional intelligence in athletes for managing external pressure to optimize their well-being.

竞技状态焦虑是运动心理学中研究最广泛的话题之一，因为它在决定运动员的表现和健康方面起着至关重要的作用。因此，确定影响青少年运动员焦虑的因素似乎是相关的，特别是在科学文献匮乏的运动中，如水球。本研究考察了父母和教练对完美主义的压力、球员的情商和他们的竞争状态焦虑之间的关系。样本包括304名来自西班牙的水球运动员（男209人，女94人，其他1人），年龄在12 - 18岁之间（年龄= 14.10±1.58岁）。估计了两种先验模型（完全和部分中介），然后分析了最佳拟合模型的性别不变性。结果表明，部分中介模型与数据拟合较好，并且在性别之间是不变的。教练压力负向预测情绪智力，正向预测认知焦虑和躯体焦虑。此外，教练压力对自信心有负向显著的间接影响；即情商在教练压力与自信之间起中介作用。另一方面，父母压力对躯体焦虑有直接影响，情绪智力直接预测自信。该研究强调了在处理竞争状态焦虑时同时考虑环境因素和个人心理特征的重要性。未来的研究和干预应侧重于教练和家长教育计划，以及发展运动员的情绪智力，以管理外部压力，优化他们的健康。

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引用次数: 0