Psychological bulletin最新文献

Attention has a seemingly inevitable tendency to turn inward toward our thoughts. Mind-wandering refers to moments when this inward focus diverts attention away from the current task-at-hand. Mind-wandering is thought to be ubiquitous, having been estimated to occur between 30% and 50% of our waking moments. Yet, it is unclear whether this frequency is similar within-task performance contexts and unknown whether mind-wandering systematically increases with time-on-task for a broad range of tasks. We conducted a systematic literature search and individual participant data meta-analysis of rates of occurrence of mind-wandering during task performance. Our search located 68 research reports providing almost a half-million total responses to experience sampling mind-wandering probes from more than 10,000 unique individuals. Latent growth curve models estimated the initial occurrence of mind-wandering and linear change in mind-wandering over sequential probes for each study sample, and effects were summarized using multivariate meta-analysis. Our results confirm that mind-wandering increases in frequency over time during task performance, implicating mind-wandering in characteristic within-task psychological changes, such as increasing boredom and patterns of worsening behavioral performance with time-on-task. The systematic search and meta-analysis provide the most comprehensive assessment of normative rates of mind-wandering during task performance reported to date. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Interoceptive exposure (IE) involves the use of exercises, activities, or tasks to intentionally induce (or exacerbate) physical symptoms in the body, to challenge misconceptions about the harmful nature of the physical symptoms that maintain fear and problematic avoidance. IE was originally developed for the cognitive behavioral treatment and prevention of panic disorder. Bodily sensations and concern about physical symptoms are common features in many conditions, not limited to panic disorder. For this reason, IE could be theoretically relevant to cognitive behavioral intervention for many psychological, behavioral, and medical conditions. Yet, IE remains relatively underrecognized and underused as an intervention. Exposure involves feeling discomfort before experiencing relief; thus, it is often perceived as an aversive, unsafe, and illogical intervention because of the seemingly paradoxical approach. We conducted a systematic literature search for a scoping review with the aim of locating published studies on IE to understand how it has been studied beyond panic disorder. Studies focused solely on panic disorder were excluded. We were able to identify and extract data from 132 studies (published between 1992 and 2022), though this published literature is difficult to find. The use of IE has been widely investigated in conditions beyond panic disorder, although evidence for its efficacy is difficult to isolate from other forms of exposure and cognitive behavioral features. There is the strongest evidence for the efficacy of IE as a part of multicomponent cognitive behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder, health anxiety, irritable bowel syndrome, and to aid in benzodiazepine discontinuation. Interventions that were primarily or exclusively IE-based did not consistently or directly influence claustrophobia fear, separation anxiety, suicidality, insomnia symptoms, cigarette or drug abstinence, or pain-related fear. No serious adverse events were reported in any study. Studies of IE require larger sample sizes, detailed descriptions and rationale of IE exercises, higher IE dosing, extended follow-up assessment, and documentation of safety. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Confronting prejudice is a promising strategy for reducing intergroup bias. The current meta-analysis estimated the effects of confronting prejudice on intergroup bias in the confronted person and examined the impact of potential moderators. Eligible studies measured intergroup bias in participants confronted versus not confronted for intergroup bias. A three-level mixed-effects analysis on 91 effect sizes found a significant, medium-sized effect of confronting prejudice on reducing intergroup bias (g₊ = 0.54). There was only limited evidence of publication bias. Confrontation was differentially effective at reducing different types of intergroup bias with a medium-to-large effect on using or endorsing stereotypes, small-to-medium effects on behavior and behavioral intentions, and no significant effects on cognitive prejudice. Effects were otherwise largely robust to differences in confrontation, sample, and study design characteristics. Yet, studies predominantly focused on whether confronting the use of stereotypes reduced subsequent use of stereotypes in artificial settings, and primarily sampled U.S.-based, young, White adults, making it difficult to generalize effects to other forms of intergroup bias and populations, particularly in real-world settings. Studies also tended to measure intergroup bias immediately after confrontation, so the duration of effects over longer periods is less clear. To better evaluate the potential of confrontation as a prejudice reduction technique, future research should examine whether confronting prejudice reduces different forms of intergroup bias in more diverse participant samples and settings, over longer periods, and further test theoretical mediators of these effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

In understanding the nature of mathematical skills, the most influential theories suggest that mathematical cognition draws on different systems: numerical, linguistic, spatial, and general cognitive skills. Studies show that skills in these areas are highly predictive of outcomes in mathematics. Nonetheless, the strength of these relations with mathematical achievement varies, and little is known about the moderators or relative importance of each predictor. Based on 269 concurrent and 174 longitudinal studies comprising 2,696 correlations, this meta-analysis summarizes the evidence on cognitive predictors of mathematical skills in children and adolescents. The results showed that nonsymbolic number skills (often labeled approximate number sense) correlate significantly less with mathematical achievement than symbolic number skills and that various aspects of language relate differently to mathematical outcomes. We observed differential predictive patterns for arithmetic and word problems, and these patterns only partly supported the theory of three pathways-quantitative, linguistic, and spatial-for mathematical skills. Concurrently, nonsymbolic number and phonological skills were weak but exclusive predictors of arithmetic skills, whereas nonverbal intelligence quotient (IQ) predicted word problems only. Only symbolic number skills predicted both arithmetic and word problems concurrently. Longitudinally, symbolic number skills, spatial ability, and nonverbal IQ predicted both arithmetic and word problems, whereas language comprehension was important for word problem solving only. As in the concurrent data, nonsymbolic number skill was a weak longitudinal predictor of arithmetic skills. We conclude that the candidates to target in intervention studies are symbolic number skills and language comprehension. It is uncertain whether the two other important predictors, nonverbal IQ and spatial skills, are actually malleable. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Belief in conspiracy theories has been linked to harmful consequences for individuals and societies. In an effort to understand and mitigate these effects, researchers have sought to explain the psychological appeal of conspiracy theories. This article presents a wide-ranging systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature on conspiracy beliefs. We analyzed 971 effect sizes from 279 independent studies (N_participants = 137,406) to examine the relationships between psychological motives and conspiracy beliefs. Results indicated that these relationships were significant for all three analyzed classes of motivation: epistemic (k = 114, r = .14), existential (k = 121, r = .16), and social motivations related to the individual, relational, and collective selves (k = 100, r = .16). For all motives examined, we observed considerable heterogeneity. Moderation analyses suggest that the relationships were weaker, albeit still significant, when experimental (vs. correlational) designs were used, and differed depending on the conspiracy measure used. We statistically compare the absolute meta-analytic effect size magnitudes against each other and discuss limitations and future avenues for research, including interventions to reduce susceptibility to conspiracy theories. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Family-based treatments provided around the world for children with mental health, physical health, and developmental disorders often convey secondary mental health benefits to caregivers and siblings who participate in those treatments. Yet, there are no systematic evaluations of these secondary benefits, suggesting that current estimates of the effectiveness of family treatments do not accurately represent the full scope of benefits to participants. In the present study, we use a three-level meta-analysis to summarize the secondary benefits for caregivers (n = 19,895) and siblings (n = 784) who participated in the treatment of a child family member. Results from 128 studies across many countries reveal multiple strengths in the research literature, including frequent use of standardized treatments, random assignment of participants to treatment conditions, and comparison of family-based treatments to usual services. This meta-analysis examines 412 effect sizes and shows that family-based treatments produce small but statistically significant secondary benefits (d = 0.25) compared to individually focused treatments and conditions. In addition, the magnitude of these secondary benefits is relatively consistent across a range of possible moderators, including characteristics of the participants, clinical interventions, study methods, and measures. The only significant moderator of family-based treatments is caregiver gender, such that male caregivers report fewer secondary benefits than do female caregivers. Our findings suggest that there is a pressing need for researchers to routinely measure secondary benefits in studies evaluating family-based treatments of childhood disorders. Furthermore, researchers of these treatments should report family structure, key demographic information (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning families), and cultural values (e.g., familismo) in their studies. Moreover, administrators, policymakers, and treatment providers would do well to consider the secondary benefits and cost savings of interventions that are delivered to families of children with a wide range of disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

This first-of-its-kind meta-analysis (N = 79 studies; 56,552 students; k = 640 effects) provides a comprehensive assessment of five cultural diversity climate approaches that capture different ways of addressing cultural diversity in K-12 schools. We examined how intergroup contact theory's optimal contact conditions, multiculturalism climate, colorblind climate, critical consciousness climate, and polyculturalism climate were associated with children's and adolescents' intergroup outcomes (intergroup attitudes, cross-group friendships, experienced discrimination), academic outcomes (academic achievement, motivation, engagement), and socioemotional outcomes (belonging, well-being). Results from meta-analytic random-effects models revealed the largest and most consistent effects for optimal contact conditions, with small-to-medium-sized effects and significant relationships with all outcomes. Multiculturalism climate was significantly and positively related to intergroup attitudes, achievement, motivation, and belonging (mostly, these were small effect sizes). Critical consciousness climate (small effect sizes) and polyculturalism climate (small-to-medium effect sizes) were correlated with both academic and socioemotional outcomes. Colorblind climate was not significantly associated with any outcomes. Moderator analyses revealed that contact conditions exhibited larger effects in secondary education compared with primary education and in the United States compared with Europe. The percentage of majority group members moderated some relationships (e.g., contact conditions had smaller effects when there were more majority group members in the sample). Significantly larger effects emerged for student-reported colorblind climate measures than for teacher-reported measures. Overall, this meta-analysis provides a highly nuanced view of the most robust evidence for the associations between cultural diversity climate and outcomes that are critical for positive child and youth development to date. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Social rewards are strong drivers of behavior and fundamental to well-being, yet there is a lack of consensus regarding what actually defines a reward as "social." Because a systematic overview of existing social reward operationalizations is currently absent, a review of the literature seems necessary to advance toward a unified framework and to better guide research and theory. To bridge this gap, we preregistered and conducted the first comprehensive systematic review of human and animal experimental studies that used the term "social reward" and charted existing operationalizations, revealing the implicit and explicit definitions used in the field. Stimulus characteristics and measures of social reward were extracted from a total of 384 studies encompassing 42,118 participants and subjects. We provide detailed summaries of these elements, stratified by species (human/animal) and study type (behavioral, brain imaging, pharmacological, and physiological). Two main aspects were found to account for most of the difference in operationalizations: the sensory richness of a stimulus (intimacy) and engagement in social interaction (i.e., the synchronous observation and action between at least two individuals, viz., immediacy). Drawing insights from second-person neuroscience approaches and theoretical models in the field of human-computer interaction, we propose that human and animal research can greatly benefit from considering these properties, as they have important theoretical and practical consequences for human and translational research, with far-reaching implications for neighboring research fields such as those pertaining to social media and the development of artificial intelligence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).