Journal of Space Safety Engineering最新文献

{"title":"Independent safety investigation for commercial space accidents: a research on relevant international laws and their implications","authors":"Chao-Ting Cheng","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.08.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.08.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite recent developments advocating for independent safety investigations into commercial space accidents amid the rapid expansion of global space activities, no unified international framework currently exists, unlike the comprehensive system established for aviation accidents under ICAO’s Annex 13. While the independent safety investigation model found in international aviation law and maritime law provide instructive frameworks, the fundamental differences in the legal regimes governing space, air, and maritime domains constrain their direct applicability to space-related incidents. Existing space treaties, notably the Outer Space Treaty, the Liability Convention, and the Rescue Agreement, delineate state responsibilities and liabilities but do not establish detailed mechanisms for post-accident investigation. Furthermore, the development of an international investigative framework for space accidents is impeded by significant challenges, including national security considerations, export control regimes, and broader geopolitical dynamics. Nevertheless, this paper underscores the critical importance of international cooperation and transparency in advancing space safety. It concludes by calling for further scholarly inquiry and multilateral engagement, highlighting recent efforts by the United States and its allies to address export control limitations through bilateral agreements as a pragmatic step toward reconciling safety imperatives with national security concerns in the governance of commercial space activities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 487-492"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Concept of approach to advanced Russian orbital station","authors":"Nikita A. Chudinov,&nbsp;Rafail F. Murtazin,&nbsp;Vladimir A. Soloviev,&nbsp;Victor V. Afonin,&nbsp;Alexander Yu. Kaleri","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.06.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.06.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><span>At present, the final approach of Russian spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS) is carried out in automated mode. To decrease the relative velocity, several braking burns are done to ensure \"passive safety\", when a free flying vehicle does not collide with the ISS. Under this approach, the implemented trajectories do not provide the crew with complete information about the relative motion, making manual control complicated. For this reason, switching to manual mode is allowed only at the final stage of braking, flying around or docking. In other cases, the docking may need to be postponed that means to perform the rendezvous again jeopardizing the entire mission. In order to improve the docking reliability during low-Earth orbit missions and, eventually, lunar missions, it is required to provide convenient manual control at all stages of approach in compliance with safety requirements. The authors have reviewed the manual approach heritage from the flights to the </span><em>Salyut</em> and <em>Mir</em> orbital stations as well as from the <em>Space Shuttle</em> missions. The paper proposes the technique that allows expanding the application of manual control by selecting a convenient approach trajectory with complete information about the relative motion. This technique is expected to be implemented during missions to the Russian Orbital Station.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 390-395"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Real-time air-traffic warning during satellite re-entries: Challenges and developments","authors":"S. Sanvido ,&nbsp;B. Bastida Virgili ,&nbsp;S. Lemmens ,&nbsp;H. de Haan ,&nbsp;J. Cassier ,&nbsp;A. Caron ,&nbsp;T. Rabus","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.06.005","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.06.005","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Over time, new market trends are shaped by advances in technological development. The space sector is no exception to this evolution, with launches across all mass and type classes reaching record levels in recent years. In terms of re-entries, this translates into a rapid increase in the number of re-entering objects. Between 10 % and 40 % of the re-entering mass is expected to survive, posing a potential hazard to aircraft, ships and ground populations. Alongside to the uncertainty on the surviving mass, the on-ground risk assessment is still strongly affected by the uncertainties in predicting the re-entry point, which is estimated around 20 % of the remaining lifetime for an uncontrolled re-entry from a circular orbit. Despite these challenges, the theory for the on-ground risk assessment is in a certain extent harmonised within the international context of space agencies.</div><div>In contrast, the assessment of the risk that re-entering objects pose to air and sea traffic is still a major point of discussion today, with methodologies that can vary widely from one country/agency/entity to another.</div><div>This paper discusses key challenges that are currently hindering the implementation of real-time air traffic warnings during Earth’s atmospheric re-entries, ranging from technical gaps to the lack of clear metrics or a centralised coordination point, and outlines recent developments aimed at mitigating these issues.</div><div>The first section of this work provides an overview of relevant historical events and comments the international response to the increased risk, while the second section discuss the challenges for the practical implementation of a real-time risk assessment for air traffic during the re-entry of space objects, and propose near-term steps for a overcoming them.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 434-442"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108234","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Space safety in the age of LEO constellations: The role of spectrum management","authors":"Qian Sun ,&nbsp;Huiliang Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.07.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.07.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><span><span>The rapid expansion of low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations<span> has heightened spectrum interference and collision risks<span><span>, exposing limitations in the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) static spectrum allocation framework. This paper investigates these challenges, particularly for Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) applications such as direct-to-cell phone connectivity and discontinuous data transmission. Through a comparative analysis of regulatory approaches by the </span>U.S.<span><span> Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the European Electronic Communications Committee (ECC), it identifies gaps in current spectrum management practices. The study proposes three adaptive solutions: (1) an enhanced time-sharing mechanism utilizing spectrum sensing and </span>frequency hopping to </span></span></span></span>minimize interference; (2) the establishment of international standards for dynamic </span>spectrum sharing<span> under the ITU to harmonize global policies; and (3) a multilateral governance framework, led by the United Nations, for integrated management of spectrum and orbital resources. These recommendations aim to mitigate interference risks, enhance international coordination, and ensure the secure and sustainable operation of space resources amidst the growing proliferation of LEO constellations.</span></div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 542-548"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108246","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A framework for compatible-by-design orbit coordination in LEO","authors":"Miles Lifson","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.06.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.06.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As more and more operators propose and begin to deploy large constellations, finite orbital volume in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is becoming increasingly congested. Intelligently organizing and coordinating large constellations to efficiently make use of LEO and avoid hazardous conjunctions between on-station satellites can significantly reduce risk with minimal burden to satellite operators. This work describes the intrinsic capacity framework for understanding geometric constraints to compatible orbital design and orbit loading. This framework provides a way to calculate efficiency of orbital use, remaining unconsumed orbital volume, and efficacy of capacity-expanding measures. The paper describes various potential policy objectives associated with orbit loading. It explores ways to achieve them with different technical architectures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 501-512"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108244","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Getting the preliminary hazard analysis right","authors":"Tommaso Sgobba","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.05.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.05.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) is widely used in the so-called risk-based design of space systems to identify and mitigate hazards. The analysis is rather straightforward, however it requires a clear understanding of key principles. This paper discusses some critical mistakes to be avoided during the performance of the PHA that can compromise the overall effort.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 385-389"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108278","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Use of probabilistic-mathematical-analogies in aerospace-safety problems","authors":"E. Suhir","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.02.007","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.02.007","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><span>Predictive modeling using probabilistic-mathematical-analogies (PMAs) is never a must, but, in addition to other possible experimental and modeling effort, often enables shedding supplementary useful light on some critical aerospace-safety tasks and problems (ASP) by providing valuable quantitative information about the most likely outcome of an aerospace mission or an off-normal situation. In this write-up some well-known, \"classical”, analogies employed in the past in various areas of applied science and engineering by outstanding researchers, as well as some currently used ones suggested in the aerospace-safety field by the author, are indicated with an emphasis on the application of the probabilistic analytical (“mathematical”) modeling. The approach is based on the use of the probabilistic-design-for-reliability (PDfR) concept. The concept was initially introduced to address the reliability </span>physics<span><span> of aerospace electronic and photonic products, and then applied to various human-in-the-loop (HITL) situations, when the reliability of the instrumentation, both its hard- and software, and the performance of the humans involved, if any, contribute jointly to the outcome of an aerospace mission or an extraordinary situation. Several medical (surgical), clinical, automatic driving and even </span>astrobiology<span> problems using the PMA-based approach are also indicated. It is concluded that while some kind of predictive modeling should always be considered and conducted for aerospace safety problems of importance prior to and, if possible, also during accelerated reliability (”life”) testing of critical electronic and photonic<span><span> products, predictive modeling and particularly the one employing PMA based approach should always complement computer simulations. Analytical (“mathematical”) modeling and computer simulations are based on different assumptions and employ different calculation techniques, and if the obtained results using these two major modeling tools are in agreement, then there is a good reason to believe that the calculated data are accurate and trustworthy. Future work should consider other possible applications of the PMA approach including the development of methodologies for establishing ultimate acceptable risk levels for critical undertakings, even beyond the aerospace-safety field, taking into consideration both the </span>probabilities of possible (never zero) field failures and the most likely consequences of such failures.</span></span></span></div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 381-384"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108277","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"International cooperation on space safety standards (ICSSS)","authors":"Tommaso Sgobba","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.08.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.08.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper illustrates a proposal by the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS) to establish an independent forum, called International Cooperation on Space Safety Standards (ICSSS), for space faring countries regulators to harmonize national regulations, and to collectively vet existing space safety voluntary consensus standards in view of recommending their adoption in national regulations.</div><div>By signing the ICSSS Charter, the forum members would commit to “best-efforts” in aligning their national regulations to the reference space safety standards the forum would develop.</div><div>The paper starts with a discussion of the term <em>space safety,</em> of the fields it comprises, and of the concept of acceptable risk. Then it moves on to discuss in general the purpose and use of voluntary consensus standards, to make clear that safety standards are a special category of standards, and to illuminate the difference between standards and regulations. Finally, the paper presents the key principles according to which the ICSSS would operate, the different groupings of standards, and the concept of proceeding by phases in expanding the scope of the standardization activities.</div><div>The first phase of the cooperation would concern launch and re-entry safety, and spaceports safety.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 481-486"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108316","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Space mission safety assurance: Cybersecurity attack scenarios and risk assessment","authors":"Sakurako Kuba ,&nbsp;Radu F. Babiceanu","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.07.005","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.07.005","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Cybersecurity threats to critical infrastructure have advanced beyond traditional concerns such as data breaches and financial extortion, evolving into sophisticated attacks by nation-state and organized criminal entities. In particular, Space-based infrastructure faces unique vulnerabilities, where cyber intrusions can disrupt satellite operations, degrade critical services, and compromise the safety of crewed missions. The current absence of robust legal frameworks and comprehensive cybersecurity provisions within international space regulations poses significant challenges to mission resilience and incident response. Concurrently, the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) into space systems introduces both operational advantages and novel cybersecurity risks. The lack of normative guidance or “soft law” for AI-driven space applications further amplifies these vulnerabilities, increasing the overall mission safety risk. This study proposes a goal-oriented attack tree framework to systematically identify and analyze emerging cyberattack scenarios relevant to space operations. Each scenario is evaluated using a safety risk matrix based on the likelihood of occurrence and potential operational impact. Additionally, this paper surveys existing AI/ML implementations in space systems and describes the unique threat vectors. The proposed framework aims to advance cybersecurity risk management practices and extend the preventative scope against cyber threats, particularly those affecting satellite navigation and mission-critical systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 560-570"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108248","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Research and analysis on safety design of AI technology applied to space system","authors":"Shengxin Jiang,&nbsp;Jie Gao,&nbsp;Rui Zhang,&nbsp;Xinhua Zhang,&nbsp;Wei Zhu,&nbsp;Liming Ren","doi":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.05.004","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsse.2025.05.004","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technology, AI is frequently talked about and debated in space systems. The strong interaction between AI and space systems is an exciting new field, as the autonomy of AI systems enables them to continuously monitor space debris and satellite orbits in real time, calculating the potential risk of collisions. By predicting dangerous approaching in advance, AI systems suggest or even execute maneuvers automatically to avoid collisions, ensuring the safety and longevity of satellites. This will help break through the current limitations of available resources and personnel costs, and promote new developments in the field of space exploration. However, every benefit brought by AI in space systems may have opposite risks manifested as potential attack, infiltration and compromise. Because AI systems have autonomous consciousness, the unpredictability of their behaviour can introduce uncontrollable situations to people, which in turn affects the completion of space missions. Therefore, the current problem caused by the combination of AI and space exploration is that people cannot be assured with the reliability and safety of space systems that utilize AI technology.</div><div>In response to the above problems, this paper takes AI technology in space systems as the research object. Firstly, it investigates the application progress of AI technology in space systems. And the classification of AI technology in space systems is preliminarily determined according to current mainstream research theory or standard. Considering the high-risk environment such as radiation and temperature change, the key points of safety design for AI in space systems are analysed from the data, model and system. The rough set theory based on genetic particle swarm optimization is used to reduce attributes, and the focus of safety design for AI in space systems is further optimized.</div><div>The authors hope that through the research of this paper, the level of AI technology in space systems can be clearly elucidated, providing a solution for effectively assessing the factors of safety design for AI in space systems, and strengthening the significant benefits of AI driving the development of space systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37283,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Space Safety Engineering","volume":"12 3","pages":"Pages 493-500"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108243","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}