This article aims at a description and analysis of sacred kingship in Polynesia. To this aim two cases – or rather island cultures – are compared. The first one is the island of Tahiti, where several complex polities were found. The most important of which were Papara, Te Porionuu, and Tautira. Their type of rulership was identical, so they will be discussed as one. In these kingdoms a great role was played by the god Oro, whose image and the belonging feather girdles were competed fiercely. The other case is found on the Tonga Islands, far to the west. Here the sacred Tui Tonga ruled, who was allegedly a son of the god Tangaloa and a woman from Tonga. Because of this descent he was highly sacred. In the course of time a new powerful line, the Tui Haa Takalaua developed, and the Tui Tonga lost his political power. In his turn the Takalaua family was overruled by the Tui Kanokupolu. The tensions between the three lines led to a fierce civil war, in which the Kanokupolu line was victorious. The king from this line was, however, not sacred, being a Christian.
{"title":"Sacred Kingship: Cases from Polynesia","authors":"H. Claessen","doi":"10.30884/SEH/2018.02.01","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/SEH/2018.02.01","url":null,"abstract":"This article aims at a description and analysis of sacred kingship in Polynesia. To this aim two cases – or rather island cultures – are compared. The first one is the island of Tahiti, where several complex polities were found. The most important of which were Papara, Te Porionuu, and Tautira. Their type of rulership was identical, so they will be discussed as one. In these kingdoms a great role was played by the god Oro, whose image and the belonging feather girdles were competed fiercely. The other case is found on the Tonga Islands, far to the west. Here the sacred Tui Tonga ruled, who was allegedly a son of the god Tangaloa and a woman from Tonga. Because of this descent he was highly sacred. In the course of time a new powerful line, the Tui Haa Takalaua developed, and the Tui Tonga lost his political power. In his turn the Takalaua family was overruled by the Tui Kanokupolu. The tensions between the three lines led to a fierce civil war, in which the Kanokupolu line was victorious. The king from this line was, however, not sacred, being a Christian.","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43091882","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The paper focuses on the patterns of evolution of the structure of global scientific collaboration over the most recent historical period. Among the multiple approaches to measuring such collaboration we choose to investigate the evolution of the international co-authorship network over a 25-year-long period (from 1991 to 2016). We build a series of networks of main international co-authorship partners using the data obtained from Scopus Elsevier database. Our analysis reveals two markedly different patterns of the network evolution. At the general level, it has been increasingly turning into a ‘hub-and-spoke’ network where one central hub, the USA, clearly dominates nearly the whole of the network. However, if the impact of the USA is not taken into account, we discover a second level of the network structure with remarkably different patterns – instead of one single hub, there exist a number of centers with their respective clusters, and this structure has not been gravitating towards becoming more concentrated. If anything, its evolution has taken quite the opposite path, with a number of new centers emerging recently with their respective clusters of countries. Shulgin et al. / Historical Evolution of Global Scientific Collaboration 157
本文重点研究了近一段历史时期全球科学合作结构的演变模式。在衡量这种合作的多种方法中，我们选择调查国际合作网络在25年期间(1991年至2016年)的演变。我们利用从Scopus Elsevier数据库获得的数据建立了一系列主要国际合作伙伴网络。我们的分析揭示了两种明显不同的网络演化模式。总的来说，它已经越来越多地变成了一个“中心辐射型”网络，其中一个中心枢纽，美国，显然主导了几乎整个网络。然而，如果不考虑美国的影响，我们发现了第二层次的网络结构，其模式明显不同——不是一个单一的枢纽，而是存在许多中心和各自的集群，这种结构并没有朝着更集中的方向发展。如果说有什么不同的话，那就是它的发展方向完全相反，最近出现了一些新的中心，以及它们各自的国家群。Shulgin et al. /全球科学合作的历史演变157
{"title":"Historical Evolution of Global Scientific Collaboration: The Case of International Co-Authorship Network","authors":"S. Shulgin, J. Zinkina, A. Andreev, E. Butova","doi":"10.30884/SEH/2018.02.10","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/SEH/2018.02.10","url":null,"abstract":"The paper focuses on the patterns of evolution of the structure of global scientific collaboration over the most recent historical period. Among the multiple approaches to measuring such collaboration we choose to investigate the evolution of the international co-authorship network over a 25-year-long period (from 1991 to 2016). We build a series of networks of main international co-authorship partners using the data obtained from Scopus Elsevier database. Our analysis reveals two markedly different patterns of the network evolution. At the general level, it has been increasingly turning into a ‘hub-and-spoke’ network where one central hub, the USA, clearly dominates nearly the whole of the network. However, if the impact of the USA is not taken into account, we discover a second level of the network structure with remarkably different patterns – instead of one single hub, there exist a number of centers with their respective clusters, and this structure has not been gravitating towards becoming more concentrated. If anything, its evolution has taken quite the opposite path, with a number of new centers emerging recently with their respective clusters of countries. Shulgin et al. / Historical Evolution of Global Scientific Collaboration 157","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48456334","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Evolution of Russian Emigration in the Post-Soviet Period","authors":"I. Aleshkovski, A. Grebenyuk, O. Vorobyeva","doi":"10.30884/seh/2018.02.09","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/seh/2018.02.09","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49301466","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The archaeological evidence available so far has revealed that the earliest mace-heads first appeared in the Near East about 10,000 BP. along with the early development and spread of agriculture. After that maceheads began to spread throughout the ancient world: southward to Ancient Egypt Kingdom in North Africa, and northwest to Europe and then to the Eurasian steppe of central Asia and Siberia. Eventually, this movement gradually arrived at the Northwestern region of China. In China, mace-heads were found only in Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai and Western Shaanxi in Northwestern Chine. In fact, the morphology of these objects is quite similar to those found outside China. The author assumes that maces, as they bear special and symbolic functions, are not the original or indigenous cultural trait of Chinese civilization. Instead, they are more likely to be exotic goods coming from out-side. The author argues the reasons can be summarized as follow: first, mace-heads in the Near East significantly predate all counterparts in China. Second, the amounts of mace-heads found in China are relatively limited. Third, mace-head discoveries in China are concentrated only in the northwestern area, a pattern explicitly indicating the Western origin of this type of artifacts. From the very beginning of the modern field of archaeology in China in 1921, the question of the origin of ancient Chinese culture has been a focus of academic discussion. For instance, Dr. J. G. Andersson (Fig. 1) initially considered the Yangshao Culture (4900–3000 BCE) as the earliest stage in the emergence of Chinese civilization (Andersson 1923). Later, under the influence of some western scholars, Anderson accepted the model that found Chinese culture as originating in the West. Subsequently, he focused on the northwestern regions of China in search of evidence related to the earliest stages of Chinese civilization (Andersson 1925). Li Shuicheng / A Significant Evidence of the Early Cultural Interaction 259 Fig. 1. Dr. J. G. Andersson Although the ‘Western origin theory’ of Chinese culture has been challenged and criticized from the beginning, there was not any study for a long time that sufficiently elucidated and pin-pointed the provenance of ancient Chinese culture given the scarcity of evidence. For many Chinese scholars during that time, the “western-origin theory” became a longstanding dilemma. Since the 1950s, numerous archaeological discoveries have rejected the idea of ‘Chinese culture coming from the West’ and Chinese scholars gradually have established the theory of ‘Chinese culture originating indigenously’ – in the main valleys of the Yellow River, also known as the Central Plains. To a certain extent, the dispute has even become a controversial question debated on the philosophical level. In fact, no regional culture has ever been completely isolated in the history of world. Archaeology has shown, irrefutably, that cultural exchange played a crucial role in the development
{"title":"The Mace-head: A Significant Evidence of the Early Cultural Interaction between West and East","authors":"Li Shuicheng","doi":"10.30884/SEH/2018.02.14","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/SEH/2018.02.14","url":null,"abstract":"The archaeological evidence available so far has revealed that the earliest mace-heads first appeared in the Near East about 10,000 BP. along with the early development and spread of agriculture. After that maceheads began to spread throughout the ancient world: southward to Ancient Egypt Kingdom in North Africa, and northwest to Europe and then to the Eurasian steppe of central Asia and Siberia. Eventually, this movement gradually arrived at the Northwestern region of China. In China, mace-heads were found only in Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai and Western Shaanxi in Northwestern Chine. In fact, the morphology of these objects is quite similar to those found outside China. The author assumes that maces, as they bear special and symbolic functions, are not the original or indigenous cultural trait of Chinese civilization. Instead, they are more likely to be exotic goods coming from out-side. The author argues the reasons can be summarized as follow: first, mace-heads in the Near East significantly predate all counterparts in China. Second, the amounts of mace-heads found in China are relatively limited. Third, mace-head discoveries in China are concentrated only in the northwestern area, a pattern explicitly indicating the Western origin of this type of artifacts. From the very beginning of the modern field of archaeology in China in 1921, the question of the origin of ancient Chinese culture has been a focus of academic discussion. For instance, Dr. J. G. Andersson (Fig. 1) initially considered the Yangshao Culture (4900–3000 BCE) as the earliest stage in the emergence of Chinese civilization (Andersson 1923). Later, under the influence of some western scholars, Anderson accepted the model that found Chinese culture as originating in the West. Subsequently, he focused on the northwestern regions of China in search of evidence related to the earliest stages of Chinese civilization (Andersson 1925). Li Shuicheng / A Significant Evidence of the Early Cultural Interaction 259 Fig. 1. Dr. J. G. Andersson Although the ‘Western origin theory’ of Chinese culture has been challenged and criticized from the beginning, there was not any study for a long time that sufficiently elucidated and pin-pointed the provenance of ancient Chinese culture given the scarcity of evidence. For many Chinese scholars during that time, the “western-origin theory” became a longstanding dilemma. Since the 1950s, numerous archaeological discoveries have rejected the idea of ‘Chinese culture coming from the West’ and Chinese scholars gradually have established the theory of ‘Chinese culture originating indigenously’ – in the main valleys of the Yellow River, also known as the Central Plains. To a certain extent, the dispute has even become a controversial question debated on the philosophical level. In fact, no regional culture has ever been completely isolated in the history of world. Archaeology has shown, irrefutably, that cultural exchange played a crucial role in the development","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42110084","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Archaeological Indicators for Chinese Early States: A Case Study of Taosi in Shanxi","authors":"He Nu","doi":"10.30884/seh/2018.02.12","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/seh/2018.02.12","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69741342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
With the largest number of casualties in human history, unprecedented planetary scale and documented cruelty, the two World Wars have marked the twentieth century as a time for extreme violence. Nevertheless, the casualties documented for wars across the past ~2000 years equate to percentages of population in no way larger in the twentieth century. Arguably, the perception of the twentieth century as one of unprecedented violence is, beyond the obvious reality of the total number of victims, driven by an increased public awareness as a consequence of increased efficiency of information circulation. These observations are paralleled by others on human violence, but also on life expectancy, wealth, and technological advances such as those related to the efficiency of information trafficking – with typography proposed as an illustrative factor. Even so, with the exponential increase in population, any future world war (for, notably, no such conflict is precluded by the statistical trends discussed here, since the 2000-year trend has been relatively constant, slightly decreasing in recent years, but in no way reaching zero) would still be expected to entail death tolls larger than World War II. The number of casualties in a war is generally taken as indication of the scale of the conflict; such statistics are nowadays commonly accessible and are discussed below (List of Wars... N.d.). The following text makes use of such numbers in order to give a short retrospective overview across the past ~2000 years.
{"title":"Arguable Precedence for the World Wars of the Twentieth Century","authors":"R. Silaghi-Dumitrescu","doi":"10.30884/SEH/2018.02.06","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/SEH/2018.02.06","url":null,"abstract":"With the largest number of casualties in human history, unprecedented planetary scale and documented cruelty, the two World Wars have marked the twentieth century as a time for extreme violence. Nevertheless, the casualties documented for wars across the past ~2000 years equate to percentages of population in no way larger in the twentieth century. Arguably, the perception of the twentieth century as one of unprecedented violence is, beyond the obvious reality of the total number of victims, driven by an increased public awareness as a consequence of increased efficiency of information circulation. These observations are paralleled by others on human violence, but also on life expectancy, wealth, and technological advances such as those related to the efficiency of information trafficking – with typography proposed as an illustrative factor. Even so, with the exponential increase in population, any future world war (for, notably, no such conflict is precluded by the statistical trends discussed here, since the 2000-year trend has been relatively constant, slightly decreasing in recent years, but in no way reaching zero) would still be expected to entail death tolls larger than World War II. The number of casualties in a war is generally taken as indication of the scale of the conflict; such statistics are nowadays commonly accessible and are discussed below (List of Wars... N.d.). The following text makes use of such numbers in order to give a short retrospective overview across the past ~2000 years.","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44250487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article discusses the transformation of the commandant control system in the city of Kizlyar. The article covers the issues of managing the city from the second half of the 18 – 19 centuries. Depending on the situation in the empire, Caucasian politics as a whole also changed and changed. The article attempts to analyze the meaning and role of the commandant’s office in resolving economic, political and administrative issues in the city of Kizlyar. The economic and sociocultural aspects of the commandant’s activities are considered in the period under study, since this stage is the key to Caucasian politics. The primary tasks faced by the commandants of the fortress by the middle of the 19 century were the solution of socio-economic problems, cultural and educational work and familiarizing the local population with the Russian legal space. The system of commandant control of the city of Kizlyar was transformed from simple supervision to the solution of the most important for the life of Kizlyar and the Northeast Caucasus as a whole.
{"title":"Sociocultural Aspects of Transformation of Administrative System in Kizlyar in the Second Half of the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries","authors":"A. Gazieva, M. M. Gasanov","doi":"10.30884/SEH/2018.02.07","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/SEH/2018.02.07","url":null,"abstract":"This article discusses the transformation of the commandant control system in the city of Kizlyar. The article covers the issues of managing the city from the second half of the 18 – 19 centuries. Depending on the situation in the empire, Caucasian politics as a whole also changed and changed. The article attempts to analyze the meaning and role of the commandant’s office in resolving economic, political and administrative issues in the city of Kizlyar. The economic and sociocultural aspects of the commandant’s activities are considered in the period under study, since this stage is the key to Caucasian politics. The primary tasks faced by the commandants of the fortress by the middle of the 19 century were the solution of socio-economic problems, cultural and educational work and familiarizing the local population with the Russian legal space. The system of commandant control of the city of Kizlyar was transformed from simple supervision to the solution of the most important for the life of Kizlyar and the Northeast Caucasus as a whole.","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46292286","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The year 2017 marked not only the hundredth anniversary of the Revolution of 1917, but also the 500 anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation in Germany. It was just the Reformation that gave start to modern revolutions in Europe and the world. In the first part of the article we analyze the course of transformation of revolutions within historical process, in particular, how their world-historical role, the social bases, revolutionary ideologies, practices, and information technologies they applied have changed over the centuries. Then we show the important changes that occurred in revolutionary practice and the very understanding of the essence of revolution due to great revolutions. In the second part of the article we highlight some issues related to the theory of revolution, in particular, he defines the types of revolutions starting from religious to modernizing revolutions, and also points some important conditions for the revolutionary outbreak. In conclusion, we consider how and why the revolutions have been increasingly used as a geopolitical weapon. The year 2017 marked not only the hundredth anniversary of the Revolution of 1917, but also the 500 anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation in Germany. We think that it was just the Reformation that produced the onset of modern revolutions in Europe and the world. This explains the title of the article. In its first part we analyze the transformation vectors of revolutions within historical process, in particular, how the social bases, revolutionary ideologies, practices, and applied information technologies have changed over the centuries. While considering these aspects we also consider various points related to the theory of revolution. In the second part we deal with some additional aspects of the theory of revolution. In conclusion, we focus on how and why revolutions have been increasingly used as a geopolitical weapon. Social Evolution & History / September 2018 172 In the present paper there is no opportunity to survey numerous scientific approaches to the definition of revolution. We should note that there is no generally accepted definition and it will hardly ever appear (see Grinin, Issaev, and Korotayev 2016; Grinin and Korotayev 2016). If we regard revolutions as a violent change of regime, we can say that they accompanied political history for many millennia. But such revolutions are mostly characteristic for the polis-type states with regimes oscillating from oligarchic (or tyrannical) toward democratic and then back. Thus, prior to the early modern period the revolutions mostly occurred in the states with political regime less common for the pre-industrial period. From revolutionary perspective the history of some Hellenistic states and Rome may be also presented as a struggle between social and political groups for the distribution of resources and power (see, e.g., Sorokin 1992, 1994; Nefedov 2007). We find something of political and social revolutions (or re
2017年不仅是1917年革命100周年，也是德国宗教改革开始500周年。正是宗教改革开始了欧洲和世界的现代革命。在文章的第一部分，我们分析了革命在历史进程中的转化过程，特别是革命的世界历史角色、社会基础、革命意识形态、革命实践和革命所使用的信息技术在几个世纪以来是如何变化的。然后，我们展示了革命实践中发生的重要变化，以及由于大革命而对革命本质的理解。在文章的第二部分，我们强调了与革命理论有关的一些问题，特别是他对从宗教革命到现代化革命的革命类型进行了界定，并指出了革命爆发的一些重要条件。总之，我们考虑了革命如何以及为什么越来越多地被用作地缘政治武器。2017年不仅是1917年革命100周年，也是德国宗教改革开始500周年。我们认为正是宗教改革引发了欧洲和世界的现代革命。这就解释了文章的标题。在第一部分中，我们分析了历史进程中革命的转化载体，特别是几个世纪以来社会基础、革命意识形态、实践和应用信息技术是如何变化的。在考虑这些方面的同时，我们也考虑到与革命理论有关的各个方面。在第二部分，我们讨论革命理论的一些附加方面。总之，我们关注革命如何以及为什么越来越多地被用作地缘政治武器。社会进化与历史/ 2018年9月172在本文中，没有机会调查革命定义的许多科学方法。我们应该注意到，没有一个普遍接受的定义，它几乎不会出现(见Grinin, Issaev, and Korotayev 2016;Grinin and Korotayev 2016)。如果我们把革命看作是一种暴力的政权更迭，我们可以说革命伴随着政治史几千年。但这些革命大多是政治型国家的特征，政权从寡头(或专制)走向民主，然后又回到民主。因此，在近代早期之前，革命大多发生在前工业化时期政治制度不那么普遍的国家。从革命的角度来看，一些希腊化国家和罗马的历史也可能被呈现为社会和政治团体之间为资源和权力分配而进行的斗争(参见，例如，Sorokin 1992,1994;Nefedov 2007)。我们在中世纪国家(意大利和其他一些国家)发现了一些政治和社会革命(或革命企图)。在一些东方国家的历史上也观察到社会斗争，但在这里，建立新政权的尝试，形象地说，改变“宪法”，是相当罕见的。然而，当社会经济(分配)关系发生转变时，有时会爆发一种社会革命。也发生了毁灭性的起义，推翻了王朝，就像在中国发生的那样。然而，通过上述所有的例子，在古代和中世纪时期，没有革命能够使社会进步到社会进化的更高阶段。毫无疑问，与战争和其他变革相比，革命在发展中发挥了作用，但显然没有那么重要。革命后社会的生产基础不会发生变化，因此革命的进步作用比近代弱得多。只有从现代开始，革命才成为历史进程的主要驱动力之一(见Grinin 1997;Semyonov, Gobozov, and Grinin 2007;Travia and Morgania 2004;戈德斯通1991)。为什么会这样呢?原因是15世纪后期开始向一种新的工业生产原则过渡(然而，它的先驱在更早的时候就显现出来了;欲了解更多详情，请参阅:Grinin 2006;Grinin L.和Grinin A. 2015;Grinin, Korotayev 2015)。在改变生产方式的同时，必须改变其他一切关系，使社会能够为新的生产力的发展提供广阔的空间。正是革命打破了阻碍发展的关系。因此，在本文中，我们主要讨论的是在16世纪以前的历史上几乎闻所未闻的新型革命。 我们将其描述为展开历史进程的一种极其重要的现象，并将其描述为实现社会渐进式发展以提高其经济，文化，政治和法律水平的手段。在另一篇文章中，我们认为革命不仅是一种改变政治制度的手段，也是一种解决主要社会冲突的手段，这些社会已经成为技术、文化和政治发展的主流。最后，我们应该注意到，革命在历史进程中日益重要的作用不仅与15世纪最后三分之一开始的普遍技术变革有关，而且与信息技术的同时突破有关。重要的是，任何伟大的革命或新的革命浪潮都与新兴的、本质上是新的或改进的媒体有某种联系。在接下来的文章中，我们试图追溯革命实践的轨迹(以便在文章的第二部分进行总结)。第一节。革命的演变1.1。早期革命(16-18世纪)论革命爆发的一些先决条件。革命的爆发、发展和成功有若干先决条件。由于这是一个颇有争议的问题，我们很难在本文中分析所有这些问题。在这里，我们将集中讨论四个几乎没有辩论但又密切相关的条件。第一个先决条件是存在一种相对较新的或经过修正的意识形态(它的分布可能在革命前就已经发生，也可能就在革命过程中)。在我们看来，一场革命(不同于反抗或暴动)需要一种新的或改良的意识形态，这种意识形态不仅仅是团结人民(这可以通过抗议情绪、加剧需求和灾难、增加对压迫和不公正的怨恨来实现)。意识形态可以或多或少地给出一个清晰的概念(然而，在相当普遍的口号层面上)，即某种政治制度比现有的制度更好，为了过上更好的生活，必须改变(替代)后者。如前所述，第二个先决条件是现有的信息技术，由于许多原因，这些技术显得很重要，因为它们有助于传播革命意识形态和宣传并吸引支持者。因此，按照列宁的名言，他们既是集体的宣传者，又是集体的组织者。第三个重要的先决条件是高识字率，因为在有2 - 3%识字人口的社会中，革命几乎不可能发生，需要相当数量的识字人口。第四个前提是，由于运动的意识形态涉及政治和社会制度的制度性变化，革命只有在具有一定识字和文化水平的城市化社会中，并且知识分子作为一个社会群体已经形成，才有可能反复和规律地发生;换句话说，在开始和发展现代化的社会中(关于社会进化与历史的关系/ 2018年9月174革命与现代化见Grinin 2013;2017а;Grinin and Korotayev 2016)。这四个因素(新意识形态、信息技术、文化和一定程度的城市化)是密切相关的。此外，我们应该注意到，在文盲占多数或大部分的社会里，和在完全有文化的社会里，革命都可能发生。这里没有任何准确的标准。城市化水平也是如此。但有趣的是，在文盲占多数的社会(但受教育的人数必须足够，不低于百分之二十至三十)和完全有文化的社会，都可能发生伟大的革命。显然，这些革命之所以伟大，只是因为革命事件积极地吸引了大多数人口，即农民。为什么我们可以认为宗教改革是近代早期的第一次革命?宗教改革开始时，德国和其他一些国家爆发革命的所有上述和其他先决条件都是显而易见的。现代化的萌芽也可以找到。在城市发展、贸易和工业(尤其是采矿业)方面，德国是欧洲最先进的国家之一。欧洲的银来自萨克森和波西米亚的矿山(Nef 1987: 735)，而采矿是高度机械化的(详情见Baks 1986;Grinin 2006;Grinin L. and Grinin A. 2015; Grinin, Korotayev 2015)。印刷术也是在德国发明的，这并非偶然。在这里，有必要关注这种新的、大规模的、强大的信息技术，它成为准备宗教革命的最重要的物质基础。 众所周知，图书印刷术出现于15世纪中期(1445年)，并迅速在欧洲传播开来。在十五世纪的批评中
{"title":"Revolutions: An Insight into a Five Centuries' Trend","authors":"L. Grinin","doi":"10.30884/SEH/2018.02.11","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/SEH/2018.02.11","url":null,"abstract":"The year 2017 marked not only the hundredth anniversary of the Revolution of 1917, but also the 500 anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation in Germany. It was just the Reformation that gave start to modern revolutions in Europe and the world. In the first part of the article we analyze the course of transformation of revolutions within historical process, in particular, how their world-historical role, the social bases, revolutionary ideologies, practices, and information technologies they applied have changed over the centuries. Then we show the important changes that occurred in revolutionary practice and the very understanding of the essence of revolution due to great revolutions. In the second part of the article we highlight some issues related to the theory of revolution, in particular, he defines the types of revolutions starting from religious to modernizing revolutions, and also points some important conditions for the revolutionary outbreak. In conclusion, we consider how and why the revolutions have been increasingly used as a geopolitical weapon. The year 2017 marked not only the hundredth anniversary of the Revolution of 1917, but also the 500 anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation in Germany. We think that it was just the Reformation that produced the onset of modern revolutions in Europe and the world. This explains the title of the article. In its first part we analyze the transformation vectors of revolutions within historical process, in particular, how the social bases, revolutionary ideologies, practices, and applied information technologies have changed over the centuries. While considering these aspects we also consider various points related to the theory of revolution. In the second part we deal with some additional aspects of the theory of revolution. In conclusion, we focus on how and why revolutions have been increasingly used as a geopolitical weapon. Social Evolution & History / September 2018 172 In the present paper there is no opportunity to survey numerous scientific approaches to the definition of revolution. We should note that there is no generally accepted definition and it will hardly ever appear (see Grinin, Issaev, and Korotayev 2016; Grinin and Korotayev 2016). If we regard revolutions as a violent change of regime, we can say that they accompanied political history for many millennia. But such revolutions are mostly characteristic for the polis-type states with regimes oscillating from oligarchic (or tyrannical) toward democratic and then back. Thus, prior to the early modern period the revolutions mostly occurred in the states with political regime less common for the pre-industrial period. From revolutionary perspective the history of some Hellenistic states and Rome may be also presented as a struggle between social and political groups for the distribution of resources and power (see, e.g., Sorokin 1992, 1994; Nefedov 2007). We find something of political and social revolutions (or re","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48716383","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The following paper is a michrohistorical intervention in one aspect of David Graeber’s meta-narrative in Debt: the First 5,000 years. Graeber posits four overarching cycles of world history based on the alternation of the systematic use of coinage and virtual credit money. This grand narrative is set explicitly in the context of world-systems analysis and has received surprisingly little attention from scholars. In this intervention, I define what microhistorical practice is, I situate microhistory in the intellectual context of intervening in large grand narratives – either to shed light on them, problematize them, raise new questions about them, or perhaps even in some cases overturn them. Microhistorians do not avoid narrative, but they seek a return to narrative through a close analysis of small events situated within larger frameworks. Finally, I explore preliminary and approximate applications of microhistory to the Axial Age bullion cycle, one cycle in the great alternations between credit and coin. I focus on one specific philosopher – Plato, and create a microhistorical account of his actual relationship with Archytas, a Pythagorean philosopher, who I claim, is the living inspiration for the philosopher king’s in Plato’s utopian imaginary Kallipolis, the famous ideal city-state of his Republic. Microhistory is a historical practice aimed at a return to narrative through detailed analysis of primary documents. Microhistorians are generally concerned with overlooked persons, and marginalized voices. They wish to gain understanding and insight into the properties of large-scale global processes and events by looking at the finely textured details of everyday life during the chosen time period under study. Ideally, a microhistory will not simply be a biography, nor will it be primarily the analysis of a small village, although a person's life or village can serve as a site of analysis. Instead, microhistorical practice is about developing an observational lens, or a point of view, onto larger landscapes and structures of history. Paul / What is Microhistory? 65 The larger the landscape, the more important it is to have several sets of eyes, arranged at certain potentially illuminating positions, in order to appreciate the full range and complexity of the historical structures we wish to understand. If we extend this metaphor to the field of all written history, then the role of microhistorians would be to find those points of view from which our limited gaze onto the past can survey such a landscape in its richest diversity (see Levi 1991: 93–113). As the name suggests, a point of view is microscopic and limited. However it may be that it is precisely through those limited, marginalized, and forgotten points of view in history that we stand to gain clear insight into the past. Unlike the geographical landscape in our metaphor, however, the field of time and the passing of events may not be best understood from above. The metaphor fails us b
当然，我们永远不会有直接的证据表明他们的感受，但通过对攀登过程中的各种特征和障碍物的详细分析，我们可以做出合理的推断。也许，我们甚至可以揭开一个故事，或者发现一个真相。社会进化与历史/2018年9月66微观历史的经典书籍正是那些揭示叙事并揭示更大历史结构的作品。例如，娜塔莉·泽蒙·戴维斯的《马丁·盖尔的归来》再现了16世纪农民的生活，并为当时的社会结构提供了新的视角。至关重要的是，它说明了农民妇女如何能够利用这个父权制世界的各个方面来对她们有利。这是在讲述一个关于阿诺德·杜蒂尔的故事的过程中曝光的，他是一个农民，在很长一段时间内能够假装成马丁·盖尔，愚弄了大多数村民，在各个方面都像真正的马丁·盖尔一样生活。通过对审问记录的详细分析，戴维斯能够重现这部戏剧，揭示一个真正存在的叙事——一个真正发生的故事——并将这个故事作为一种询问社会历史问题的方式（Davis 1983）。在这部作品中，戴维斯并不太关心世界体系或革命时刻等总体结构，而是选择通过仔细检查法庭记录来干预一个众所周知的故事。通过展示阿诺尔德是如何知道他遇到的每个人几乎不可能的细节的，他的身体大小是如何不同的，伯特兰和阿诺尔德的行为在他们虚构的婚姻过程中是如何变化的，以及后来的法庭案件，Davis能够证明Bertrande是一个合作者，他选择违背某些公认的习俗来维持幸福的关系（Davis 1988）。在选择这一特定观点时，戴维斯对16世纪乡村生活中的女性进行了某些假设。这是一项旨在推翻某些假设的具体干预措施，但在微观历史中也有更广泛的干预措施。唐纳德·赖特的《非洲的世界和一个很小的地方》就是这样一本书。通过长期关注一个小地方，Wright推翻了关于大西洋奴隶贸易的假设，并为全球进程如何影响冈比亚纽米的政治和社会结构提供了新的线索（Wright，2010）。这里选择的分析技术是缩小空间尺度，而时间尺度是从十五世纪到二十一世纪。在Davis的案例中，我们在空间、时间和结构上（通过关注一种关系）减少了规模，而在Wright的例子中，规模的减少只是空间上的，与关注个人无关。然而，在这两种情况下，我们都发现了旨在揭示更大结构的详细分析：在一种情况下是社会结构，在另一种情况中是世界体系/经济结构。还原分析的选择取决于微观历史学家，可能有多少历史事件就有多少选择。然而，目的是一样的：在一粒沙子里看世界。3还有一些微观历史作品，既结合了社会结构，也结合了经济结构。勒罗伊·拉杜里（Le Roy Ladurie）的《蒙太洛》（Montaillou）对一个14世纪的村庄进行了详尽的描述，并讨论了经济学，因为保罗/什么是微观历史？67真相、宗教裁判所、宗教、魔法、权力、婚姻，以及中世纪对人类灵魂命运的看法。读完拉杜里的作品，人们会觉得这位法国教授成功地创造了一台文学时间机器。在这种情况下，我们对过去的某些假设也被推翻了。从蒙太鲁的观点来看，黑暗时代的生活似乎并没有那么糟糕——也许除了虱子。当然，宗教裁判所最终进行了野蛮的干预，但似乎在大多数时间里，围绕村庄及其环境的一些伟大的权力中心，如教堂和君主，或多或少都没有参与村民的日常事务（Le Roy Ladurie 1978）。微观历史的经典著作也揭示了全球结构的智力方面。例如，卡洛·金茨堡（Carlo Ginzburg）的《奶酪与蠕虫》（The Cheese and The Worms）探讨了一位16世纪磨坊主的世界观，并展示了他的哲学如何拒绝将其整齐地归类为16世纪的主导思想体系（金茨堡，1980年）。这部作品挑战了哲学发展的知识涓滴理论：就好像农民、工人或村民的观点发展到了他们能够内化和理解当代文人观点的程度。
{"title":"What is Microhistory?","authors":"J. Paul","doi":"10.30884/seh/2018.02.04","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/seh/2018.02.04","url":null,"abstract":"The following paper is a michrohistorical intervention in one aspect of David Graeber’s meta-narrative in Debt: the First 5,000 years. Graeber posits four overarching cycles of world history based on the alternation of the systematic use of coinage and virtual credit money. This grand narrative is set explicitly in the context of world-systems analysis and has received surprisingly little attention from scholars. In this intervention, I define what microhistorical practice is, I situate microhistory in the intellectual context of intervening in large grand narratives – either to shed light on them, problematize them, raise new questions about them, or perhaps even in some cases overturn them. Microhistorians do not avoid narrative, but they seek a return to narrative through a close analysis of small events situated within larger frameworks. Finally, I explore preliminary and approximate applications of microhistory to the Axial Age bullion cycle, one cycle in the great alternations between credit and coin. I focus on one specific philosopher – Plato, and create a microhistorical account of his actual relationship with Archytas, a Pythagorean philosopher, who I claim, is the living inspiration for the philosopher king’s in Plato’s utopian imaginary Kallipolis, the famous ideal city-state of his Republic. Microhistory is a historical practice aimed at a return to narrative through detailed analysis of primary documents. Microhistorians are generally concerned with overlooked persons, and marginalized voices. They wish to gain understanding and insight into the properties of large-scale global processes and events by looking at the finely textured details of everyday life during the chosen time period under study. Ideally, a microhistory will not simply be a biography, nor will it be primarily the analysis of a small village, although a person's life or village can serve as a site of analysis. Instead, microhistorical practice is about developing an observational lens, or a point of view, onto larger landscapes and structures of history. Paul / What is Microhistory? 65 The larger the landscape, the more important it is to have several sets of eyes, arranged at certain potentially illuminating positions, in order to appreciate the full range and complexity of the historical structures we wish to understand. If we extend this metaphor to the field of all written history, then the role of microhistorians would be to find those points of view from which our limited gaze onto the past can survey such a landscape in its richest diversity (see Levi 1991: 93–113). As the name suggests, a point of view is microscopic and limited. However it may be that it is precisely through those limited, marginalized, and forgotten points of view in history that we stand to gain clear insight into the past. Unlike the geographical landscape in our metaphor, however, the field of time and the passing of events may not be best understood from above. The metaphor fails us b","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48862423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article explores the ethnic and religious values of the Muslims in the Volga-Urals region of the Russian Empire between the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The author employs Max Weber's ‘Protestant Ethic’ as the primary source to perform a comprehensive analysis of religious rationalism and to examine its important elements including the displacement of mystical features and growing role of mind, the literacy level, the knowledge of sacred texts and rational understanding of the Protestant doctrine. The article reveals the development of Islam in Russia towards its rationalization under the influence of the Russian Muslim religious reformers' activities, which were aimed at spreading the rationalization ideas. However, the analysis shows that the rational-confessional foundations of economic management were not inherent for every representative of the Muslim confession but only for the upper class while the common population and small entrepreneurs preserved traditionalist values and institutional system.
{"title":"Muslim Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism: The Characteristics of Islamic Entrepreneurship Development in the Russian Empire between the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries","authors":"G. Kornoukhova","doi":"10.30884/seh/2018.02.08","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30884/seh/2018.02.08","url":null,"abstract":"This article explores the ethnic and religious values of the Muslims in the Volga-Urals region of the Russian Empire between the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The author employs Max Weber's ‘Protestant Ethic’ as the primary source to perform a comprehensive analysis of religious rationalism and to examine its important elements including the displacement of mystical features and growing role of mind, the literacy level, the knowledge of sacred texts and rational understanding of the Protestant doctrine. The article reveals the development of Islam in Russia towards its rationalization under the influence of the Russian Muslim religious reformers' activities, which were aimed at spreading the rationalization ideas. However, the analysis shows that the rational-confessional foundations of economic management were not inherent for every representative of the Muslim confession but only for the upper class while the common population and small entrepreneurs preserved traditionalist values and institutional system.","PeriodicalId":42677,"journal":{"name":"Social Evolution & History","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2018-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43866617","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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