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Moralizing gods, local gods, and complexity in Hindu god concepts: evidence from South India 教化神、地方神与印度神概念的复杂性:来自南印度的证据
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006282
Caitlyn D. Placek, Aaron D. Lightner
ABSTRACT Cultural evolutionary approaches to religion have found that in small-scale societies, “local gods” (LGs) usually care about ritual, in-group cooperation, and ecological challenges, whereas in large-scale societies, “moralizing gods” (MGs) are more concerned with prosociality. In contrast, Hindu deities are considered aspects of one god, and urban regions include LGs, complicating the prevailing distinction. The current study investigated perceptions of deities in Mysore, India, among Hindus (N = 165) who primarily worship Shiva, a prototypical MG, and Chamundeshwari, the LG. Using surveys and experimental games, our results indicated that Chamundeshwari is perceived as possessing characteristics typical of both LGs and MGs. Furthermore, beliefs about Shiva as a moralizing and punitive god were associated with prosocial game allocations in three experimental economic games, but similar beliefs about Chamundeshwari were not. Participation in rituals for Shiva predicted allocations toward outgroup members in one game, whereas participation in rituals for Chamundeshwari predicted selfish allocations in one game. These mixed results demonstrate the challenges that demographic and cultural variation can impose on dichotomous models of deities to explain religious variation, and we offer directions for future research to better understand such complexity.
研究宗教的文化进化方法发现,在小规模社会中,“地方神”(LGs)通常关心仪式、群体内合作和生态挑战,而在大规模社会中,“道德神”(MGs)更关心亲社会性。相比之下,印度教的神被认为是一个神的各个方面,城市地区包括LGs,使普遍的区别复杂化。目前的研究调查了印度迈索尔(Mysore)的印度教徒(N = 165)对神的看法,他们主要崇拜湿婆(Shiva),一个典型的MG,和chamdeshwari, LG。通过调查和实验游戏,我们的结果表明chamdeshwari被认为同时拥有lgg和mg的典型特征。此外,在三个实验性经济游戏中,将湿婆神作为道德和惩罚之神的信仰与亲社会游戏分配有关,但对chamdeshwari的类似信仰则与此无关。参加湿婆的仪式预示着在一个游戏中分配给外群体成员,而参加chamdeshwari的仪式预示着在一个游戏中分配给自私的成员。这些复杂的结果表明,人口和文化差异可能对解释宗教差异的神的二分模型施加挑战,我们为未来的研究提供了方向,以更好地理解这种复杂性。
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引用次数: 1
Perceptions of moralizing agents and cooperative behavior in Northeastern Brazil 巴西东北部地区道德因素与合作行为的认知
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006285
Montserrat Soler, B. Purzycki, M. Lang
ABSTRACT Evolutionary theories suggest that gods of world religions are associated with moralizing qualities and impartial behavior toward co-religionists, and that secular authorities approximate this effect. However, there is a lack of theorizing and experimental studies regarding the influence of local religions on inter-personal conduct. In the current research, we obtained data on beliefs regarding the moralizing qualities of the Christian god, a local god (Ogum), and police in a sample from Northeastern Brazil (n = 193). We used these beliefs as predictors of behavior in Dictator Games where players distributed endowed money between anonymous individuals belonging to local and distant communities. We used subtle reminders of the Christian god, Ogum, and police to investigate their influence on game behavior. The correlational and priming results are mostly in agreement, revealing that: (a) the Christian god is perceived as most moralizing, but (b) has only limited impact on game behavior, while (c) adherence to Ogum is associated with ingroup favoritism, as is (d) priming with secular authority. These results illustrate the differential effects of belief in moralizing and local deities on extended prosociality but show that in specific contexts, secular authorities may emulate the effects of local rather than moralizing deities.
进化论认为,世界宗教的神与道德品质和对同宗教者的公正行为有关,而世俗权威近似于这种效果。然而,关于地方宗教对人际行为的影响,缺乏理论和实验研究。在目前的研究中,我们从巴西东北部的一个样本(n = 193)中获得了关于基督教神、当地神(奥古姆)和警察的道德品质的信仰数据。我们在《Dictator Games》中使用这些信念作为行为预测因素,即玩家在本地和远程社区的匿名个人之间分配捐赠的金钱。我们使用了关于基督教神,Ogum和警察的微妙提示来调查它们对游戏行为的影响。相关和启动结果大多是一致的,揭示了:(a)基督教神被认为是最具道德性的,但(b)对游戏行为的影响有限,而(c)对奥古姆的坚持与内部群体偏爱有关,(d)与世俗权威的启动有关。这些结果说明了对道德和地方神灵的信仰对扩展的亲社会性的不同影响,但表明在特定情况下,世俗当局可能会模仿地方而不是道德神灵的影响。
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引用次数: 1
When god is watching: dictator game results from the Sursurunga of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea 当上帝注视:巴布亚新几内亚新爱尔兰Sursurunga的独裁者游戏结果
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006284
Alexander H. Bolyanatz
ABSTRACT The influence of religious beliefs on social complexity is a fairly straightforward account. The possibility of social life beyond a face-to-face community exists when supernaturally sanctioned prosocial moral norms include an expanding circle of humanity—that is, when non-kin are treated as kin. This paper describes an effort to gain a clearer picture of the ways in which belief in a moralistic deity affects people’s behavior toward others, including distant coreligionists and faraway strangers, using Dictator Game (DG) play among the Sursurunga of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. The DG experiments employed two conditions: a Local God condition and a Big God condition. Two predictions were made about the recipients of greater allocations of money in the Big God condition: (1) a distant coreligionist over a member of one’s kin group, and (2) a faraway stranger over a distant coreligionist. A final prediction was that (3) all allocations to oneself would be lower in the Big God condition than in the Local God condition. Only predictions (2) and (3) were supported by the results. An unexpected and surprising outcome was that after playing DG, participants who kept more for themselves tended to view God as less moralistic and less punitive.
宗教信仰对社会复杂性的影响是一个相当直接的解释。当超自然认可的亲社会道德规范包括一个不断扩大的人类圈子时——也就是说,当非亲属被视为亲属时——超越面对面社区的社会生活的可能性就存在了。本文利用巴布亚新几内亚新爱尔兰Sursurunga的“独裁者游戏”(DG),描述了对道德神的信仰如何影响人们对他人(包括远方的同教者和远方的陌生人)的行为的更清晰的描述。DG实验采用两种条件:局域神条件和大神条件。在“大神”的情况下,对获得更多钱的人做出了两种预测:(1)远方的同教者比自己的亲属群体成员更受欢迎;(2)远方的陌生人比远方的同教者更受欢迎。最后的预测是(3)在大神条件下,所有分配给自己的钱都比在局域神条件下少。只有预测(2)和(3)得到结果的支持。一个出乎意料的结果是,在玩了《DG》之后,那些为自己保留更多内容的参与者倾向于认为上帝不那么道德,也不那么具有惩罚性。
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引用次数: 1
The moralization bias of gods’ minds: a cross-cultural test 神的道德偏见:一个跨文化测试
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006291
B. Purzycki, A. Willard, E. Klocová, C. Apicella, Q. Atkinson, Alexander H. Bolyanatz, Emma Cohen, C. Handley, J. Henrich, M. Lang, C. Lesorogol, Sarah Mathew, R. McNamara, Cristina Moya, A. Norenzayan, Caitlyn D. Placek, Montserrat Soler, Tom Vardy, Jonathan L. Weigel, D. Xygalatas, Cody T Ross
ABSTRACT There are compelling reasons to expect that cognitively representing any active, powerful deity motivates cooperative behavior. One mechanism underlying this association could be a cognitive bias toward generally attributing moral concern to anthropomorphic agents. If humans cognitively represent the minds of deities and humans in the same way, and if human agents are generally conceptualized as having moral concern, a broad tendency to attribute moral concern—a “moralization bias”—to supernatural deities follows. Using data from 2,228 individuals in 15 different field sites, we test for the existence of such a bias. We find that people are indeed more likely than chance to indicate that local deities care about punishing theft, murder, and deceit. This effect is stable even after holding beliefs about explicitly moralistic deities constant. Additionally, we take a close look at data collected among Hadza foragers and find two of their deities to be morally interested. There is no evidence to suggest that this effect is due to direct missionary contact. We posit that the “moralization bias of gods’ minds” is part of a widespread but variable religious phenotype, and a candidate mechanism that contributes to the well-recognized association between religion and cooperation.
有令人信服的理由认为,认知上代表任何活跃的、强大的神都会激发合作行为。这种关联背后的一个机制可能是一种认知偏见,即人们普遍将道德关注归因于拟人行为体。如果人类在认知上以同样的方式代表神和人类的思想,如果人类行为主体通常被概念化为具有道德关注,那么将道德关注(一种“道德化偏见”)归因于超自然的神的普遍倾向就随之而来了。使用来自15个不同现场的2228个人的数据,我们测试了这种偏差的存在。我们发现,人们确实比偶然更有可能表明,当地的神关心惩罚盗窃、谋杀和欺骗。这种效果是稳定的,即使持有明确的道德神的信仰不变。此外,我们仔细研究了从哈扎族采集者中收集的数据,发现他们的两个神灵在道德上是有兴趣的。没有证据表明这种影响是由于传教士的直接接触。我们认为,“神的道德偏见”是广泛但多变的宗教表型的一部分,也是促成宗教与合作之间公认的联系的候选机制。
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引用次数: 11
The religiosity gender gap in 14 diverse societies 14个不同社会的宗教信仰性别差异
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006292
Tom Vardy, Cristina Moya, Caitlyn D. Placek, C. Apicella, Alexander H. Bolyanatz, Emma Cohen, C. Handley, E. Kundtová Klocová, C. Lesorogol, Sarah Mathew, Sarah A. McNamara, B. Purzycki, Montserrat Soler, Jonathan L. Weigel, A. Willard, D. Xygalatas, A. Norenzayan, J. Henrich, M. Lang, Q. Atkinson
ABSTRACT Scholars of religion have long sought to explain the persistent finding that women tend to report greater religiosity than men. However, the size of this “gender gap” may depend on the measure of religiosity employed, the religious tradition being sampled, and socio-demographic factors. Here, we conduct a systematic cross-cultural investigation into the prevalence of, and explanations for, the religiosity gender gap in 2,002 individuals from 14 diverse societies. While variation exists across societies, women in general indicate greater mental commitment (i.e., thinking and worrying more about) to their community’s moralistic god, more frequent participation in rituals for their community’s moralistic god, and more frequent prayer. While we find that the gender gap extends beyond the Christian world, no such difference was seen in religious commitment towards more local gods, to which men tend to show greater commitment. Tentative support is provided for explanations relating gender differences in religiosity to lower formal education and greater mentalizing among women, however an explanation for greater religious commitment to local gods among men remains elusive. Nevertheless, our data suggest that the moralizing gods of some contemporary world religions, unlike local deities and traditions, have evolved in ways that make them more appealing to women.
长期以来,宗教学者一直试图解释女性比男性更虔诚的宗教信仰这一持久的发现。然而,这种“性别差距”的大小可能取决于所采用的宗教虔诚程度、抽样的宗教传统和社会人口因素。在这里,我们对来自14个不同社会的2002名个体进行了系统的跨文化调查,以了解宗教信仰性别差距的普遍程度及其解释。虽然不同社会之间存在差异,但女性通常表现出对社区道德之神更大的精神承诺(即更多地思考和担忧),更频繁地参加社区道德之神的仪式,更频繁地祈祷。虽然我们发现性别差异超出了基督教世界,但在对更多地方神的宗教信仰上没有这种差异,男性往往表现出更大的信仰。对宗教信仰的性别差异与女性较低的正规教育程度和较高的心理化程度之间的解释提供了初步的支持,然而,对男性对当地神的宗教信仰程度较高的解释仍然难以捉摸。然而,我们的数据表明,一些当代世界宗教的教化之神,与当地的神和传统不同,已经以更吸引女性的方式进化了。
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引用次数: 6
Depth vs. breadth: lessons from the Evolution of Religion and Morality project 深度vs广度:从宗教和道德的演变项目的教训
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2021551
Rebekah A. Richert
The Evolution of Religion and Morality project highlights the critical need for, and signi fi cant chal-lenges in, building and executing global research e ff orts that are both rigorous and meaningful. Although this special issue is meant to signal the conclusion of this research e ff ort, the authors are candid that the Evolution of Religion and Morality project raises perhaps more questions than it has yet answered about the nature of belief in moralizing gods and the evolution of morality. The project also raises the need for clarity in research programs that incorporate variation in cultural beliefs and practices.
宗教与道德的演变项目强调了建立和执行严格而有意义的全球研究工作的迫切需求和重大挑战。虽然这期特刊意在表明这项研究工作的结论,但作者坦率地说,宗教与道德的演变项目提出的问题可能比它已经回答的问题更多,这些问题是关于神的道德化和道德的演变的信仰的本质。该项目还提出了对纳入文化信仰和实践差异的研究项目的清晰度的需求。
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引用次数: 0
Moralistic and local god beliefs and the extent of prosocial preferences on Tanna Island, Vanuatu 瓦努阿图塔纳岛上的道德和地方神信仰以及亲社会偏好的程度
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006290
Tom Vardy, Q. Atkinson
ABSTRACT The co-existence of Christian and indigenous “Kastom” belief systems on Tanna Island, Vanuatu provides a rare opportunity to explore the relationship between cooperation and religion. Here, we use data on religious beliefs and practices, religious priming, and four versions of a dictator game at two sites—one predominantly Christian and one predominantly Kastom—to test a suite of hypotheses linking prosocial behavior to beliefs about and commitment to both a powerful moralistic god and a less morally concerned local supernatural force. We found belief that the moralistic god was more punitive did not predict increased giving towards co-religionists but did predict giving more to a religious outgroup member over a co-religionist. Belief that the moralistic god was more rewarding predicted less giving towards a distant coreligionist or outgroup member. Religious commitment predicted giving to a distant coreligionist over someone from one's own village. We did not find any effect of beliefs about and commitment to less morally-concerned local supernatural forces on giving. We also did not find the predicted effects of religious priming on giving. These findings suggest a more complex relationship between religious beliefs and prosocial behavior than current theory can accommodate.
瓦努阿图塔纳岛上基督教和土著“Kastom”信仰体系的共存为探索合作与宗教之间的关系提供了难得的机会。在这里,我们使用了宗教信仰和实践、宗教启动和四个版本的独裁者游戏的数据,在两个地点——一个主要是基督教,一个主要是犹太教——来测试一系列假设,这些假设将亲社会行为与对强大的道德之神和不太道德的当地超自然力量的信仰和承诺联系起来。我们发现,相信道德之神更具惩罚性并不能预测对同教者的施舍会增加,但确实预测了对宗教外群体成员的施舍会比对同教者的施舍更多。相信道德的上帝更有回报,预示着对远方的同教者或群体外成员的付出更少。宗教承诺预示着对远方的同教者的奉献,而不是对自己村子里的人的奉献。我们没有发现对当地超自然力量的信仰和承诺对捐赠有任何影响。我们也没有发现宗教启动对捐赠的预期影响。这些发现表明,宗教信仰和亲社会行为之间的关系比目前的理论所能容纳的更为复杂。
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引用次数: 2
The Evolution of Religion and Morality project: reflections and looking ahead 宗教与道德工程的演变:反思与展望
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2021546
B. Purzycki, M. Lang, J. Henrich, A. Norenzayan
ABSTRACT This special issue marks the formal end to the Evolution of Religion and Morality project and highlights the overall findings with particular attention to our second wave of data collection. In this concluding article, we first briefly detail how the project came about and how it developed. We then catalogue our contributions, summarizing the empirical results of key synthetic investigations that were part of the overall project. In an effort to shed some light on issues future researchers might benefit from knowing about, we also discuss some of the limitations and problems in design and execution of our effort. We conclude with a discussion of current, ongoing works, and our vision for the future of the cognitive and evolutionary studies of religion.
这期特刊标志着宗教与道德演变项目的正式结束,并突出了我们第二波数据收集的总体发现。在这篇结束语中,我们首先简要介绍了这个项目是如何产生的以及它是如何发展的。然后我们对我们的贡献进行分类,总结作为整个项目一部分的关键综合调查的实证结果。为了阐明未来研究人员可能从了解中受益的问题,我们还讨论了我们工作的设计和执行中的一些限制和问题。最后,我们将讨论当前正在进行的工作,以及我们对未来宗教认知和进化研究的展望。
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引用次数: 3
Introducing a special issue on phase two of the Evolution of Religion and Morality project 介绍“宗教与道德发展”计划第二阶段专题
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2022.2038096
R. Sosis, Joseph A. Bulbulia, W. Wildman, U. Schjoedt, J. Shaver
This special double issue, Religion, Brain & Behavior’s first ever double issue, presents results from the second phase of the Evolution of Religion and Morality (ERM) project. Results from the first phase of this pioneering and influential project were published in a previous special issue of RBB (2018, volume 8, issue 2) and elsewhere (e.g., Purzycki et al., 2016). The core of this second wave of research employs experimental games—the Dictator Game and Random Allocation Game—as well as demographic and economic data to explore the relationship between beliefs in particular types of supernatural agents and cooperative behavior. Similar to the previous RBB special issue on the ERM project, this issue presents independent articles on each of the field sites from the project. These articles allowed the ERM researchers to describe the cultural and historical context of their field studies, and offered an opportunity to conduct more rigorous intra-field site analyses in ways that were not possible in the synthetic cross-cultural study previously published with the second-wave data (Lang et al., 2019). Each of these studies explores ethnographically-derived questions that afford rich insights about the subsistence, ecological, and economic variation in the collective ERM data set. In addition to these experimental and interview studies, this issue also offers four new synthetic pieces. First, Baimel et al. analyze the relationship between religious commitments and material insecurity. They show that across the 15 ERM field sites, Christian sites exhibit the strongest relationship between religious commitment and belief in a moralizing god, and this relationship is positively predicted by material insecurity. Second, Vardy et al. use the collective ERM data set to explore the oft-cited gender gap in which women exhibit higher levels of religious commitment than men. Consistent with previous research, the ERM findings support a religious gender gap. However, this gap only arises for traditions with a moralizing god. Women do not exhibit greater religious commitments in traditions that worship local gods. Third, Purzycki et al. assess whether the supernatural agents that elicit commitments across the 15 field sites are interested in human morality. As anticipated, even when “official” or “theologically correct” claims deny that the gods maintain moral interest, across the ERM field sites study participants inferred that their gods, even local gods, were generally interested in their moral actions. In the final paper of this special issue, Purzcyki et al. wrap up the 10-year ERM project with a summary target article that examines the methodological and analytic challenges of a large multi-field site cross-disciplinary study. This article assesses the strengths and limitations of both phases of the ERM project, as well as offers advice for researchers aiming to pursue similarly ambitious projects. It provides a rare glimpse into the behind-the-scenes machi
《宗教,大脑与行为》是《宗教,大脑与行为》的第一期双刊,本期特刊介绍了宗教与道德进化(ERM)项目第二阶段的研究结果。这个开创性和有影响力的项目的第一阶段的结果发表在RBB的上一期特刊(2018年,第8卷,第2期)和其他地方(例如,Purzycki等人,2016年)。第二波研究的核心是利用实验游戏——独裁者游戏和随机分配游戏——以及人口和经济数据来探索特定类型的超自然行为者的信仰与合作行为之间的关系。与之前关于ERM项目的RBB特刊类似,这期特刊提供了关于项目中每个现场站点的独立文章。这些文章使ERM研究人员能够描述他们实地研究的文化和历史背景,并提供了一个机会,以先前用第二波数据发表的综合跨文化研究无法实现的方式进行更严格的实地现场分析(Lang et al., 2019)。这些研究中的每一项都探索了民族志衍生的问题,这些问题为集体ERM数据集中的生存、生态和经济变化提供了丰富的见解。除了这些实验和访谈研究外,本期还提供了四个新的合成片段。首先,Baimel等人分析了宗教承诺与物质不安全感之间的关系。他们发现,在15个ERM研究地点中,基督教地点在宗教承诺和对道德上帝的信仰之间表现出最强的关系,这种关系与物质不安全感呈正相关。其次,Vardy等人使用集体ERM数据集来探索经常被引用的性别差距,其中女性表现出比男性更高的宗教承诺水平。与之前的研究一致,ERM的研究结果支持宗教上的性别差异。然而,这种差距只会出现在有道德上帝的传统中。在崇拜当地神灵的传统中,女性没有表现出更大的宗教信仰。第三,Purzycki等人评估了在15个实地地点引发承诺的超自然主体是否对人类道德感兴趣。正如预期的那样,即使“官方”或“神学上正确”的说法否认神保持道德利益,在整个ERM现场研究的参与者推断,他们的神,甚至是当地的神,通常对他们的道德行为感兴趣。在本期特刊的最后一篇论文中,Purzcyki等人用一篇总结性的目标文章总结了10年的ERM项目,该文章研究了一项大型多领域跨学科研究的方法和分析挑战。本文评估了ERM项目的两个阶段的优势和局限性,并为致力于类似雄心勃勃的项目的研究人员提供了建议。它提供了对长期大规模研究努力的幕后阴谋的罕见一瞥。我们从人类学、认知科学、哲学和心理学等五位宗教科学研究领域的知名学者那里获得了评论,对这篇文章和ERM项目进行了总体评论。本期特刊最后对Purzycki等人的评论进行了回应。ERM对宗教生物文化研究的影响,尤其是对宗教学术研究的影响,才刚刚开始。除了他们的研究结果引发的各种学术辩论外,ERM还加强了旨在理解宗教表达、承诺和行为变化的跨文化项目的趋势。的确,科学研究
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引用次数: 1
Big comparison 大的比较
IF 2.2 3区 哲学 0 RELIGION Pub Date : 2022-04-03 DOI: 10.1080/2153599X.2021.2021548
T. Luhrmann
A., & Henrich, J. (2016). Moralistic gods, supernatural punishment and the expansion of human sociality. Nature, 530(7590), 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16980 Roos, P., Gelfand, M., Nau, D., & Lun, J. (2015). Societal threat and cultural variation in the strength of social norms: An evolutionary basis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 14–23. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.obhdp.2015.01.003 Swanson, G. E. (1960). The birth of the gods: The origin of primitive beliefs (Vol. 93). University of Michigan Press. Watts, J., Bulbulia, J., Gray, R. D., & Atkinson, Q. D. (2016). Clarity and causality needed in claims about big Gods. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 39. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X15000576 Watts, J., Greenhill, S. J., Atkinson, Q. D., Currie, T. E., Bulbulia, J., & Gray, R. D. (2015). Broad supernatural punishment but not moralizing high gods precede the evolution of political complexity in Austronesia. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 282(1804), 20142556. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2556 Watts, J., Sheehan, O., Bulbulia, J., Gray, R. D., & Atkinson, Q. D. (2018). Christianity spread faster in small, politically structured societies. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(8), 559–564. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0379-3
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引用次数: 0
期刊
Religion Brain & Behavior
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