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'A method for safe transmission': the microscope slides of the American Postal Microscopical Club. “一种安全传输方法”:美国邮政显微俱乐部的显微镜载玻片。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-12-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000534
Lea Beiermann

In the 1870s, microscopy societies began to proliferate in the United States. Most of these societies attracted microscopists from surrounding cities, but the American Postal Microscopical Club, modelled on the British Postal Microscopical Society, used the postal system to connect microscopists scattered across the country. Club members exchanged microscope slides and notes following a chain-letter system. The main objective of the club was to teach its members how to make permanent slides. Preparation and mounting methods required technical skill, which was, as even club members had to admit, difficult to learn without personal instruction. Yet members developed ways to share craft knowledge through the post. Drawing on the private notes of a member and published reports on the slides circulated, this paper challenges the widespread assumption that the generation of craft knowledge depended on the co-location of artisans. It argues that microscopists' knowledge of preparation methods was intertwined with their skill in building and navigating information infrastructures, and that by tracing these infrastructures we gain a better understanding of how craft knowledge travelled in the late nineteenth century.

在19世纪70年代,显微镜学会开始在美国蓬勃发展。这些协会大多吸引了来自周边城市的显微镜专家,但美国邮政显微镜俱乐部,模仿英国邮政显微镜协会,利用邮政系统将分散在全国各地的显微镜专家联系起来。俱乐部成员按照连锁信的方式交换显微镜载玻片和笔记。俱乐部的主要目的是教会员如何制作永久幻灯片。准备和安装方法需要技术技巧,即使是俱乐部成员也不得不承认,如果没有个人指导,很难学会。然而,会员们想出了通过帖子分享工艺知识的方法。根据一位成员的私人笔记和在幻灯片上发布的报告,本文挑战了一种普遍的假设,即工艺知识的产生取决于工匠的共同位置。它认为,显微镜学家对制备方法的知识与他们建立和导航信息基础设施的技能交织在一起,通过追踪这些基础设施,我们可以更好地了解19世纪后期工艺知识的传播方式。
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引用次数: 2
Adjusting to precarity: how and why the Roslin Institute forged a leading role for itself in international networks of pig genomics research. 适应不稳定:罗斯林研究所如何以及为什么在猪基因组学研究的国际网络中为自己树立了领导地位。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-12-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000686
James W E Lowe

From the 1980s onwards, the Roslin Institute and its predecessor organizations faced budget cuts, organizational upheaval and considerable insecurity. Over the next few decades, it was transformed by the introduction of molecular biology and transgenic research, but remained a hub of animal geneticists conducting research aimed at the livestock-breeding industry. This paper explores how these animal geneticists embraced genomics in response to the many-faceted precarity that the Roslin Institute faced, establishing it as a global centre for pig genomics research through forging and leading the Pig Gene Mapping Project (PiGMaP); developing and hosting resources, such as a database for genetic linkage data; and producing associated statistical and software tools to analyse the data. The Roslin Institute leveraged these resources to play a key role in further international collaborations as a hedge against precarity. This adoption of genomics was strategically useful, as it took advantage of policy shifts at the national and European levels towards funding research with biotechnological potential. As genomics constitutes a set of infrastructures and resources with manifold uses, the development of capabilities in this domain also helped Roslin to diversify as a response to precarity.

从20世纪80年代开始,罗斯林研究所及其前身面临着预算削减、组织动荡和相当大的不安全感。在接下来的几十年里,由于引入了分子生物学和转基因研究,它发生了变化,但仍然是动物遗传学家进行牲畜养殖业研究的中心。本文探讨了这些动物遗传学家如何接受基因组学来应对罗斯林研究所面临的多方面的不稳定性,通过建立和领导猪基因定位项目(PiGMaP),将其建立为猪基因组学研究的全球中心;开发和托管资源,例如遗传连锁数据数据库;并产生相关的统计和软件工具来分析数据。罗斯林研究所利用这些资源,在进一步的国际合作中发挥关键作用,以防范不稳定。基因组学的采用在战略上是有用的,因为它利用了国家和欧洲层面的政策转变,为具有生物技术潜力的研究提供资金。由于基因组学构成了一套具有多种用途的基础设施和资源,该领域能力的发展也有助于罗斯林实现多样化,以应对不稳定性。
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引用次数: 3
R.A. Fisher, eugenics, and the campaign for family allowances in interwar Britain. R.A.费雪,优生学,以及两次世界大战之间英国家庭津贴运动。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-12-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000674
Alex Aylward

Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890-1962) is today remembered as a giant of twentieth-century statistics, genetics and evolutionary theory. Alongside his influential scientific contributions, he was also, throughout the interwar years, a prominent figure within Britain's eugenics movement. This essay provides a close examination of his eugenical ideas and activities, focusing particularly upon his energetic advocacy of family allowances, which he hoped would boost eugenic births within the more 'desirable' middle and upper classes. Fisher's proposals, which were grounded in his distinctive explanation for the decay of civilizations throughout human history, enjoyed support from some influential figures in Britain's Eugenics Society and beyond. The ultimate failure of his campaign, though, highlights tensions both between the eugenics and family allowances movements, and within the eugenics movement itself. I show how these social and political movements represented a crucial but heretofore overlooked context for the reception of Fisher's evolutionary masterwork of 1930, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, with its notorious closing chapters on the causes and cures of national and racial decline.

罗纳德·艾尔默·费雪(Ronald Aylmer Fisher, 1890-1962)是20世纪统计学、遗传学和进化理论的巨人。除了他有影响力的科学贡献外,在两次世界大战期间,他还是英国优生学运动的杰出人物。这篇文章对他的优生学思想和活动进行了仔细的研究,特别关注他对家庭津贴的积极倡导,他希望这能在更“理想的”中上层阶级中促进优生学的产生。费雪的建议基于他对人类历史上文明衰落的独特解释,得到了英国优生学协会内外一些有影响力人物的支持。然而,他竞选的最终失败凸显了优生学和家庭津贴运动之间以及优生学运动本身内部的紧张关系。我展示了这些社会和政治运动是如何代表了一个至关重要的,但迄今为止被忽视的背景,对于接受费雪1930年的进化论巨著《自然选择的遗传理论》(the genetic Theory of Natural Selection),以及其臭名昭著的关于国家和种族衰落的原因和治疗的最后几章。
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引用次数: 0
Is alcohol a tropical medicine? Scientific understandings of climate, stimulants and bodies in Victorian and Edwardian tropical travel. 酒精是热带药物吗?维多利亚和爱德华时代热带旅行中对气候、兴奋剂和身体的科学理解。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-12-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000649
Edward Armston-Sheret, Kim Walker

This paper offers a new perspective on historical understandings of the relationship between alcohol, climate and the body, by studying the way that British explorers of tropical Africa drank alcohol and wrote about drink between c.1850 and c.1910. We demonstrate that alcohol was simultaneously classified as a medicinal, a preventative and a pleasurable drink, shaped by competing medical theories, but that distinctions between these different roles were highly blurred. We also show how many explorers thought certain drinks helped to protect white bodies from the effects of tropical diseases. While popular amongst travellers, these views came under growing scrutiny in the latter part of the nineteenth century, reflecting both changing scientific views about the relationship between alcohol, climate and the body and the development of a much larger European presence in tropical Africa. However, even those who opposed tropical drinking often supported the use of other stimulants and viewed the tropics as uniquely dangerous. As such, the paper challenges the idea that the late nineteenth century marked a paradigm shift in scientific attitudes towards tropical environments, as much previous scholarship has suggested. At the same time, our examinations of explorers' descriptions of drinking by African people demonstrates how ideas about racial difference played an important role within medical understandings of alcohol. Overall, this paper examines the heterogeny of attitudes to alcohol to be found within tropical medicine and documents the continuities in approach shown between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

本文通过研究1850年至1910年间英国热带非洲探险家饮酒和写作的方式,为对酒精、气候和身体之间关系的历史理解提供了一个新的视角。我们证明,酒精同时被归类为药用、预防和愉悦的饮料,由相互竞争的医学理论塑造,但这些不同角色之间的区别是高度模糊的。我们还展示了许多探险家认为某些饮料有助于保护白身体免受热带疾病的影响。虽然这些观点在旅行者中很受欢迎,但在19世纪后半叶,这些观点受到了越来越多的审查,这既反映了关于酒精、气候和身体之间关系的科学观点的变化,也反映了欧洲人在热带非洲的发展。然而,即使是那些反对热带地区饮酒的人也经常支持使用其他兴奋剂,并认为热带地区特别危险。因此,这篇论文挑战了这样一种观点,即19世纪晚期标志着对热带环境的科学态度的范式转变,正如许多以前的学术研究所表明的那样。与此同时,我们对探险家对非洲人饮酒的描述的研究表明,关于种族差异的想法在医学上对酒精的理解中发挥了重要作用。总的来说,本文考察了在热带医学中发现的对酒精的态度的异质性,并记录了19世纪和20世纪之间所显示的方法的连续性。
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引用次数: 1
'Impossible to provide an accurate estimate': the interested calculation of the Ottoman public debt, 1875-1881. 不可能提供准确的估算":1875-1881 年奥斯曼帝国公共债务的计算。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-10-08 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000637
Daniel A Stolz

When the Ottoman Empire defaulted on its public debt in 1875, British bondholders launched a campaign to win government intervention on their behalf. This article interprets the unprecedented success of this campaign as a matter of knowledge production. Mobilizing the newly established Corporation of Foreign Bondholders as a kind of 'centre of calculation', bondholders argued that they deserved assistance because of the unique size of the Ottoman default and the proportion of it that was held by British subjects. Yet neither of these numbers was easily calculated. In fact, influential bondholders worked closely with accountants and members of the Statistical Society to devise an accurate method for quantifying the Ottoman debt - and concluded that such a method did not exist. Historians of quantification and accounting have argued that the scientific status of nineteenth-century accounting depended on its disinterestedness. In the case of the Ottoman default, however, calculation was understood to be inseparable from material interest and political debate.

1875 年,奥斯曼帝国拖欠公债,英国债券持有人发起了一场运动,以争取政府代表他们进行干预。本文将这场运动的空前成功解释为一个知识生产问题。债券持有人动员新成立的外国债券持有人公司作为一种 "计算中心",认为他们应该得到援助,因为奥斯曼帝国违约的规模是独一无二的,而且其中英国臣民所占的比例也是独一无二的。然而,这两个数字都不容易计算。事实上,有影响力的债券持有者与会计师和统计学会成员密切合作,设计出了量化奥斯曼债务的精确方法,但得出的结论是这种方法并不存在。量化和会计历史学家认为,十九世纪会计的科学地位取决于其无私性。然而,就奥斯曼违约而言,计算被理解为与物质利益和政治辩论密不可分。
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引用次数: 0
'Hong Kong can afford a typhoon or two': British discussions of revolving storms. “香港承受得起一两个台风”:英国人对旋转风暴的讨论。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-09-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000236
Chi Chi Huang

This article examines the way in which the British press reported on typhoons that affected Hong Kong during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Typhoons were a significant element in the narration of the British Empire, featuring frequently in British accounts of their involvements in the Far East, where Hong Kong was its only colony. I suggest that these accounts need to be considered alongside the consolidation of the 'tropics' as a region in British perceptions, and in doing so, this article opens discussions of the study of tropicality to the consideration not just of climate, but also of the significance of singular weather events. This article argues that the cultural representations of typhoons in the British press were a tool of 'othering'. In particular, there were two significant shifts around the 1880s in these reports. First, the term 'typhoon' became tied to these types of storms that affected Hong Kong. Second, the stories that were told about typhoon events emphasized British heroism and colonial management. Both these shifts in reporting stripped away the weather wisdom that British sailors had earlier identified in the local population.

本文考察了十九世纪至二十世纪初,英国媒体对影响香港的台风的报道方式。台风是大英帝国叙事中的一个重要元素,经常出现在英国人对远东的描述中,香港是其唯一的殖民地。我建议,这些说法需要与英国人对“热带”作为一个地区的看法一并考虑,这样做,本文就开启了对热带研究的讨论,不仅要考虑气候,还要考虑单一天气事件的重要性。本文认为,英国媒体对台风的文化表征是一种“他者”的工具。特别是,在19世纪80年代前后,这些报告中有两个重要的转变。首先,“台风”一词与影响香港的这些类型的风暴联系在一起。其次,关于台风事件的故事强调英国的英雄主义和殖民管理。这两种报告方式的转变都剥夺了英国水手早先在当地居民中发现的天气智慧。
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引用次数: 1
Framing Asian atmospheres: imperial weather science and the problem of the local c. 1880-1950. 构建亚洲大气:帝国气象科学和当地问题(1880-1950)。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-09-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000054
Fiona Williamson
‘ It would be of the greatest importance to meteorology ’ , noted the editor of the Singapore Chronicle in 1829, ‘ if a set of hourly meteorological observations could be instituted at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Singapore, Malacca, and some station on the elevated plains of Hindostan ’ . 1 Of course, the author ’ s comments speak from a uniquely imperial perspec-tive, whereby such observations would benefit the colonial service of – in this case – the British Empire, enabling enhanced knowledge of imperial atmospheres and the related economic and scientific benefits that this could bring. That meteorology was closely linked to empire and imperial control has long been acknowledged, as the ability to insti-tutionalize knowledge about an environment, and thus to define what constituted legit-imate knowledge, was ultimately a question of power. 2 In Asia, a long history of weather observation was gradually pushed into institutional scientific spaces after the 1860s, with key observatories in Tokyo, Shanghai, Manila and Hong Kong, and meteorological services in India and across the China coast. 3 This shift is attributed to the recog-nition that the science was critical to state building, especially for increasing agricultural yields; for safeguarding nascent aviation services, the latter particularly critical during the Asia-Pacific War; and for enabling better prediction systems for extremes of weather. 4
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引用次数: 0
'Ancient lore with modern appliances': networks, expertise, and the making of the Open Polar Sea, 1851-1853. “古老的爱与现代的设备”:网络,专业知识,和开放的极地海,1851年至1853年。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-09-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000522
Nanna Katrine Lüders Kaalund, John Woitkowitz

This article provides a transnational analysis of the campaigns for the organization of expeditions to the central Arctic region by the American explorer Elisha Kent Kane and the Prussian cartographer August Petermann between 1851 and 1853. By adopting a comparative approach, this study focuses on three interventions in the history of Arctic science and exploration: the construction of scientific expertise surrounding the relationship between the 'armchair' and the field, the role of transnational networks, and the significance of maps as travelling epistemic objects in the production of knowledge about the Arctic regions. In bringing both campaigns in conversation with each other, this article demonstrates that the histories of Kane's and Petermann's campaigns did not constitute isolated episodes but form part of a transnational nexus of imperial science and Arctic exploration in the nineteenth century. Moreover, based on research in libraries and archives in the United States, Germany and England, this study reconnects otherwise siloed collections and contributes new findings on the interpersonal networks of science and exploration. Finally, this article illustrates the importance of adopting comparative transnational approaches for understanding the fluid and reciprocal nature of Arctic science throughout the transatlantic world.

本文对1851年至1853年间美国探险家以利沙·肯特·凯恩和普鲁士制图师奥古斯特·彼得曼组织的北极中部探险活动进行了跨国分析。通过采用比较方法,本研究侧重于北极科学和探索史上的三个干预措施:围绕“扶手椅”和实地之间关系的科学专业知识的构建,跨国网络的作用,以及地图作为旅行认知对象在北极地区知识生产中的重要性。通过将这两项运动相互联系起来,本文证明了凯恩和彼得曼的运动历史并不是孤立的事件,而是19世纪帝国科学和北极探索的跨国联系的一部分。此外,基于对美国、德国和英国的图书馆和档案馆的研究,本研究重新连接了原本孤立的收藏,并为科学和探索的人际网络提供了新的发现。最后,本文说明了采用比较跨国方法来理解整个跨大西洋世界北极科学的流动性和互惠性的重要性。
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引用次数: 1
Revolutionary electricity in 1790: shock, consensus, and the birth of a political metaphor. 1790年的革命电力:震惊、共识和政治隐喻的诞生。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-09-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000297
Samantha Wesner

The 1790 Fête de la fédération in the early French Revolution evoked the memory of the taking of the Bastille while tamping down on the simmering social forces that had erupted on 14 July 1789. How to do both? As an official architect put it, through the festival, 'the sentiment of each becomes the sentiment of all by a kind of electrification, against which even the most perverse men cannot defend themselves'. This paper argues that a new language of revolutionary electricity came into being with the French Revolution. It argues that revolutionaries drew upon concepts of medical electricity developed in the 1780s to analogize the literal electricity of the ether to the revolutionary electricity of collective political sentiment. Though historians have associated electricity with radical politics, this paper argues that in the hands of bureaucrats and festival planners, electricity entered revolutionary discourse as a powerful mechanism for exercising authority and control over an unruly revolutionary public.

1790年,法国大革命初期的Fête de la fsamdassim唤起了人们对攻占巴士底狱的记忆,同时镇压了1789年7月14日爆发的酝酿中的社会力量。如何两者兼得?正如一位官方建筑师所说,通过这个节日,“每个人的情感通过一种电气化变成了所有人的情感,即使是最乖愎的人也无法为自己辩护”。本文认为,一种新的革命电学语言是随着法国大革命而产生的。它认为革命者借鉴了18世纪80年代发展起来的医疗电的概念,将以太的字面电类比为集体政治情感的革命电。虽然历史学家将电力与激进政治联系在一起,但本文认为,在官僚和节日策划者的手中,电力作为一种强大的机制进入了革命话语,用于行使权威和控制不守纪律的革命公众。
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引用次数: 0
Frontier atmosphere: observation and regret at Chinese weather stations in Tibet, 1939-1949. 边疆大气:1939-1949年中国西藏气象站的观测与反演。
IF 0.8 1区 哲学 Q2 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2021-09-01 DOI: 10.1017/S0007087421000285
Mark E Frank

Across Tibet during the 1940s, young Han Chinese weather observers became stranded at their weather stations, where they faced illness, poverty and isolation as they pleaded with their superiors for relief. Building on the premise that China exercised 'imperial nationalism' in Tibet, and in light of scholarship that emphasizes the desirous 'gaze' of imperial observers toward the frontier, this essay considers how the meteorological archive might disrupt our understanding of the relationship between observation and empire. Meteorology presented a new way of viewing the landscape that deliberately disregarded the embodied experience of the observer in favour of instrument-mediated readings. The process produced a bifurcated archive, in which stations disseminated quantitative weather charts as a matter of public interest while privately recording the embodied and often miserable experiences of observational staff on the frontier. Unpublished letters between observers and supervisors offer a rare glimpse into the frontier as experienced by reluctant or unwilling agents of the state.

20世纪40年代,在西藏各地,年轻的汉族气象观测员被困在气象站,在那里他们面临着疾病、贫困和孤立,向上级请求救援。在中国在西藏实行“帝国民族主义”的前提下,鉴于学术强调帝国观察者对边境的渴望“凝视”,本文考虑了气象档案可能如何扰乱我们对观察与帝国之间关系的理解。气象学提出了一种观察景观的新方法,这种方法故意忽视了观察者的具体经验,而支持仪器介导的读数。这一过程产生了一个分两部分的档案,在这些档案中,气象站作为公共利益的事项分发定量天气图,同时私下记录前沿观测人员具体的、往往是悲惨的经历。观察员和监督者之间未公开的信件提供了一个难得的机会,让我们得以一窥不情愿或不情愿的国家代理人所经历的边界。
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引用次数: 2
期刊
British Journal for the History of Science
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